Permaculture Design Certificate Course

1. Module 11: Dryland Strategies

1.1. Module 11a

1.1.1. Modules 11.1 to 11.10

1.1.1.1. 11.1 – Chapter 11 Course Notes; Part One [PDF]

1.1.1.1.1. Drylands: Precipitation, Temperature and Soils This chapter is about the drylands, a climate defined by little rain and lots of evaporation, one in which we must be very careful with water and soils. In this climate, soils can easily become salted, and all systems, not just housing, need protection from the sun, the main strategy being anti-evaporation. While deserts are often associated with being exceptionally hot, drylands aren’t necessarily so, some being amongst the coldest places on earth. Drylands are one of the longest human-inhabited systems on the planet, and they are also amongst the most damaged. All of this makes them an opportunity to demonstrate how carefully designed systems can lead us to permanent productivity. Continued...

1.1.1.2. 11.2 – Introduction to Dryland Stratagies [VIDEO]

1.1.1.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize that drylands are the longest inhabited, thus most damaged, systems - Summarize the basic strategies that are integral to living in the drylands BRIEF OVERVIEW Drylands is the climate that lacks rain, has high evaporation, and is most easily damaged. We have to be very careful with water, as well as soils, which are easily salted. We have to shade out the sun from not only our houses but also our systems. Animals systems have to be carefully managed, cycling them for long periods over large areas. Drylands are some of the longest inhabited and most severely damaged systems on earth, and now desertification is increasing worldwide. Here, there is the opportunity to demonstrate the permanent productivity provided by thoughtful design, and there is then the potential to help many people who are suffering in this climate. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Drylands lack rain and have high evaporation, so we must be very careful with water and soils, shading both our houses and systems. - Animals systems require careful management with long cycles over large areas. - Desertification is increasing worldwide, but with careful design, we can demonstrate permanent productivity and landscape rehabilitation.

1.1.1.3. 11.3 – Dryland Stratagies [VIDEO]

1.1.1.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Define a desert in terms of precipitation and evaporation - Give examples of nature using anti-evaporation strategies - Realize that dryland strategies can be used in whatever climate we live, for times of drought - Provide a basic overview of the different kinds of arid landscapes BRIEF OVERVIEW Dryland strategies can be adapted to wherever we live, as we all have dry periods, and this is the most pressing problem in land management. Deforesting desert borders and salting soils is continually expanding the desert. Even without these things, there are natural years of drought caused by fluctuations in the earth’s orbit, as well as the sun and moon cycles. Our initial strategies have to be anti-evaporation, and we can look to nature for guidance. Trees have several methods: deciduous varieties lose their leaves, some have waxy leaves, some have gel, and others have large water storage organs. Animals, too, have strategies. Certain frogs go dormant to wait for rains, while other animals migrate out of the desert or to oases. Most desert animals live in burrows and are nocturnal. Unfortunately, potentially useful desert species are becoming extinct. Deserts around the world all have their niches — cactuses of the US, fruit in Asia, root crops in Africa, seeds in Australia — but they are all defined by having more potential evaporation than rainfall. Most desert are hot, but some can be very cold. They usually border savannas and, left undisturbed, will have an eye-level appearance of a low forest. Ants and termites, as opposed to worms, are soil aerators and break down organic matter. Vegetation occurs in a mosaic, waiting for the right conditions. Runoff can go inland to salt flats rather than to rivers, and the landscape is constantly eroding via wind and rain events. True desert (hyper-arid) has very little vegetation except for oases and ephemeral plants after rains, which are only two centimeters a year. Dry savannas can get between 75-100 centimeters, while semi-arid gets around 15 to 40 and arid only 15 to 20. The evaporation potential for these areas is between 100 and 700 centimeters a year. There are only three sources of water: exotic rivers, oases, and aquifers. Trees, too, add water through transpiration, and vegetative cover is anti-evaporative. Thus, pioneering species and earthworks for soaking water are crucial in this climate. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Dryland strategies can be adapted to wherever we are, and they are important as these dry periods are the most pressing problems in land management. - We can get dryland strategies from observing how plants and animals handle the conditions. - Drylands are defined by potential evaporation being more than rainfall. - They have three sources of water: exotic rivers, oases, and aquifers. - And, it’s important that we put water into those water sources through vegetation and water harvesting. - We can set up systems to take advantage of rare rain events, using earthworks and gravity to re-vegetate the landscape.

1.1.1.4. 11.4 – Precipitation [VIDEO]

1.1.1.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize that precipitation is more than rainfall - Note that rainfall averages are meaningless in deserts - Explain how water cycles through the desert after a rainfall BRIEF OVERVIEW Precipitation is water that touches the soil. Reliable rains do occur in some deserts, those with monsoon borders and near westerly coasts, but many have rare and irregular rainfall. Rainfall averages are meaningless, and deserts are floods waiting to happen. Some deserts are treeless landscapes with only fog catchers to gather moisture, but when plants are established, they can harvest 80% more water than rainfall. After rains, deserts burst to life because everything is taking advantage of life cycling opportunities. Then, the water evaporates, and everything goes back to its place of origin. In the desert, 88% of water evaporates or rushes through, so we must design systems to harvest it and safely store it. When we can establish trees and shrubs, plants will begin to add more moisture to the air. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Precipitation is water that touches the soil In deserts, averages are meaningless and, generally, rains are irregular. - After rains, deserts burst to life because it is a life cycling opportunity. - 88% of water evaporates and rushes through the desert. - We need to establish systems for harvesting and safely storing water in the desert.

1.1.1.5. 11.5 – Temperature [VIDEO]

1.1.1.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Outline the general pattern of temperatures in deserts - Discuss the behavior of temperature with regards to depth in the soil - Illustrate the varying amounts of humidity found at different levels of soil - Generalize the survival habits of most desert animals BRIEF OVERVIEW Temperatures are quite extreme in the desert, but there is a general pattern. Things begin to heat up around seven in the morning, moving into peak temperatures between twelve and three. At this time, heat begins to rise, and temperature fall from three to eight then drop rapidly until about midnight. The coldest time is just before dawn. Temperature in soil changes the deeper it is. There is little effect (from the external temperature) at 30 centimeters and almost none at two meters. Near the surface, soils hold more heat than air, and on south-facing slopes, they can get up to 60-70 degrees Celsius. Desert temperatures of 30-plus degrees are common, with recorded cases reaching over 50 degrees. Desert animals burrow, or they find high refuges in low shrubs or up posts. They need shade, and often the population of large animals corresponds to the amount of caves available. A large proportion of animals in the desert are subterranean and nocturnal, and we need to take a hint from them. Humidity in the soil, especially with sand dunes, also changes with depth. At one meter, there is about four percent humidity, but at two to six meters, there is somewhere between 10 and 20 percent. Between 20 and 60 meters deep, the soil is possibly saturated, and these are the layers where temperatures are much cooler. KEY TAKEAWAYS - There is a general pattern to daytime desert temperatures. - Temperatures in soils changes in relation to the depth, becoming cooler and more stable. - Animals in the desert are largely subterranean and nocturnal, which offers clues for how to survive there. - Humidity in soils also changes in relation to depth, becoming more saturated further down.

1.1.1.6. 11.6 – Climatic Factors in Drylands [ANMTN]

1.1.1.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Climatic factors in drylands are distinct. Air temperature minimums occur around seven a.m. with the maximum around eight p.m, and soil temperatures lag behind. At midday, birds begin to soar thermal winds, and whirlwinds are present from then until dusk. Rainfall is always less than evaporation. Dust storms are created by strong cold downdraft winds before storms. Drylands are floods waiting to happen.

1.1.1.7. 11.7 – Soil [VIDEO]

1.1.1.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Examine alkaline desert soils, and unlock their high nutritional content - Identify where best to locate home gardens, and how to balance pH levels there - Explain why biocides are particularly problematic in deserts BRIEF OVERVIEW Alkalinity is nearly always dominant in desert soils, especially near waterways, where most people want to settle. There is high nutritional content to unlock in the soils, and water and pH levels are important to consider for doing so. In the meantime, missing trace minerals like zinc, copper, manganese and so on will show up in leaf analysis via yellowing, thinning, and curling, but they can be added as foliar sprays. Soils can also be non-wetting and salted, and this can be addressed with bentonite, humus, and swales, as well as raised beds with sunken tops. Home gardens are possible close to scarps and areas where salinity levels aren’t as high. Location is key. Desert climates are fragile and require good management, so large trials should be avoided until everything is assessed. Mineral contents can be very high and even toxic. Humus can help to buffer these toxins. Phosphate is very important and can be acquired through bird manure, forests, pond bottoms, and mulches of casuarina and palms. Many trace elements aren’t available until pH levels are fixed, but they can be added as foliar sprays. It’s important to be careful with nitrogen, as too much greenery on trees can create drought stress. Sulfur and mulch pits (where the water isn’t salty) will help to bring the pH balance down. Poisons in the desert are particularly problematic because of the lack of water and slow decomposition rates. Biocides become even more dangerous, and they seep through sands into the water tables, where concentrations build up and cycle back through the system. It’s easy to green the desert on aquifers and chemicals, but the effect on the system is ultimately devastating. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Desert soils are primarily alkaline, especially near water. - Trace minerals, like zinc and iron, may be present but locked up in the alkaline soils. - Home gardens are possible, but location — away from salty plains — is very important. - Desert soils are fragile, so large trials should be put off until everything is tested and analyzed. - Poisons, due to lack of water and slow decomposition, are even more dangerous in the desert.

1.1.1.8. 11.8 – Pot System [ANMTN]

1.1.1.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW An unglazed pot buried into a humus-rich pit will slowly leak water out, and the planting pit will stay moist, making it an efficient way to grow herbs and vegetables.

1.1.1.9. 11.9 – Landscape Features in Deserts [VIDEO]

1.1.1.9.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize the different things that have affected the angular desert landscape - Give examples of erosion landscape features in drylands - Differentiate between the three main forms of deserts: ergs, Hamada, and regs BRIEF OVERVIEW There are many features in the desert landscape, and they form mosaics of vegetation. The landscape is very angular. Wind, water, and water infiltration all have a huge effect, as do rock and soil types. Shading affects opportunities for growth and habitat, especially when blocking the western sun. Fire frequency, considering the date of last fire, explains and lot about the regeneration rates, as does knowing when the last heavy rain (at least 12 mm) was. The desert landscape is the easiest to damage and hardest to repair. Erosion features are plentiful, and many of them are caused by poor human decisions. Wadis drain into the open plain country. Classic desert features include canyons, mesas, scarps, and pediments. Folded basins and ranges occur when landscapes crack, open, and turn into valleys, and these often happen near mountains. There are three main forms of deserts. Ergs are sand dune formations of different sizes and types. Hamada consist of rock pavement with large scattered boulders. Regs have extensive areas of gravel surface. As areas become more humid, these landscapes are softened with vegetation. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Many different desert features form a mosaic of vegetation that allows us to read the landscape. - Deserts are angular, affected largely by wind, water, water infiltration, rock and soil types, and shade. - When the last fire and last heavy rain occurred tells us a lot about the growth processes in the desert. - Erosion features—canyons, mesas, scarps, pediments, folded basins—are classic for the desert. - There are three main forms of desert: ergs, hamadas, and regs.

1.1.1.10. 11.10 – Desert Valley Profile in Fold Mountains [ANMTN]

1.1.1.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Valleys in fold mountains have distinct profiles that are topped with hard laterite or sandstone plateaus that have extremely thin soils, as well as hardy plants and reptiles. Moving down are scar cliffs of scree with bunch grasses, some trees, and mammal/reptile shelters. Infiltration on the cliffs is good because sediment is coarse. Below this, outwash plains have sandy clays with fast runoff that can be made fertile with swales. Flood out areas have sandy soils with scattered trees and good infiltration, so grasses grow well after rains. Stick-nesting rats and mound-building birds settle here. Past the flood areas, there are silt deposits from flood flows and large trees with deep taproots. Burrowing reptiles and small mammals inhabit this area. Finally, there sandy river beds or wadis, which will grow densely with trees and vines if left un-grazed. Moving back up, there are rocky, rugged cliffs with possible springs and hardy trees. Then, dry, rocky hills are scattered with grasses and shrubs after rains.

1.1.2. Modules 11.11 to 11.20

1.1.2.1. 11.11 – Total Desert Strategies [ANMTN]

1.1.2.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The headwaters of exotic rivers are the best area for creating swales forests and generating vegetation downstream. Isolated rock dome hills, scarps, and folds in the plains create many sites for runoff collections with small dams and swale forests. Pelleted seed can be sent upwind into areas with soil imprinting. Oases and deflation hollows provide possibilities for settlements and dune stabilization projects. Flood-out areas and pans can yield crops after heavy rains. Stability can be positively affected by occasional rains, fencing, manure/mulch, and good earthwork techniques. Negative effects come from overgrazing, feral animals, insect plagues, flash floods, and lightning storms causing fire. The largest negative factor is inappropriate investment and political policies.

1.1.2.2. 11.12 – Scarps and Wadis [VIDEO]

1.1.2.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Define scarps and wadis - Explain how water flows through scarps and wadis - Discuss how to create water catchment systems to hydrate these landscapes BRIEF OVERVIEW Scarps and wadis are fault line fractures in desert plains with cliffs that have sloping pediment at the base. Though the sharp, angular shapes look dramatic, they are very fragile. Wadis are at right angles to scarp cliffs and occur in repeated cracking patterns. Mesa are isolated pieces of scarp, and buttes are scarp sections capped with durable geological material where cliffs, scarp faces, were much softer. Water flows to cracks, down the cliffs, and join together to move through the wadi and into the desert plains. This upper flow creates scour holes at the top edge of the cliffs, and it can come over the sides like a curtain, undercutting cliff faces to form caves, which become habitats for wildlife and potentially people. Large rain events are very dangerous and can move huge boulders and lots of rocks. Water flows can be slowed by using stone or cement dams (there is no clay) at the top of the cliff, top scarp gutters to direct water, base pipe flush dams to irrigate, adjusted scour holes, and overflowing dams at the base. All of these, save the scour holes, will silt up and need cleaning. Top surfaces are very hard and can only be planted with hardy trees, but wadi floors can have deep sands, silts, and rocks. They can be installed with low rock walls (with a clear channel through the middle) to harvest water and silt but allow large events to move through. Walls can also be built on contour in the plains to pick up big flows, where twenty hectares of catchment can provide one hectare of crop. Modern earth-working and surveying equipment can establish systems easily, as we only need half a meter to a meter of water absorbed into each field to produce a grain crop and maintain palm and fruit trees. A windmill near the edge of a windy scarp can pump water to tanks up the cliff, and that can be cycled back down. Channels can be cut on the top surfaces to catch more water. Rocks and caves are plentiful for construction, and fencing is only needed at the entrance, as cliff walls surround the rest. Once a wadi is protected from overgrazing, it can become a very productive place. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Wadis and scarps are fault line fractures in desert plains, with cliffs that have sloping pediments at their base. - Water flows to cracks that lead to the cliffs, sending merging flows to wadi floors, and they join and empty into the desert plains. - Water can be slowed and harvested with top dams, scarp gutters, scour holes, and overflowing base dams. - Low rock walls can help to capture silt and water along the wadi floor and on contour in the plains. - 20 hectares or catchment can provide one hectare of crop. - With modern earth-working and surveying equipment, a stable system can be achieved easily.

1.1.2.3. 11.13 – Development of a Desert Scarp Profile [ANMTN]

1.1.2.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Condensation leaf drip from the forest helps to create a humid landscape. The humid landscape has an S-curl profile. As the humid landscape begins to disappear, a head slope cliff appears. This head slope develops a scree slope. Finally, the angular profile of the desert scarp emerges.

1.1.2.4. 11.14 – Scarp and Wadi Drainage [ANMTN]

1.1.2.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Scarp and wadi systems drain water from the upper erosion surface. Traditional settlements were located in wadi pediment slopes, above the floodwater. Outside of the wadi, on the lower erosion surface, there are flat-top vertical mesas and rock hills rising out of the landscape.

1.1.2.5. 11.15 – Scour Holes [ANMTN]

1.1.2.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Scour holes occur at the top of the wadi valley cliff, before the water falls over the wadi floor. Streams of water scour out holes, some of which can be enlarged into cisterns. They are important to wildlife, and old scour holes that are filled with sand can be rimmed with rocks to plant trees. Mark As Complete

1.1.2.6. 11.16 – Sandstone Valley Scarps and Caves [ANMTN]

1.1.2.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Sandy, semi-arid valleys have a succession of scarps, caves, and ledges with a deep sand flood plain. These are more complex landscapes than true desert scarps and can be designed. Clay soils occur on the pediment slopes, and deep silt sands on the flood plains.

1.1.2.7. 11.17 – Scarp and Wadi Elevation [ANMTN]

1.1.2.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The features of traditional and some wadi settlements can show us how productive some desert spaces can be. Cave houses can be built into the internal scarps of wadis with facades and shading trellises on the front. Guttering systems can be installed atop cliffs, directing potentially damaging runoff water to storage. Adjusting pediment slopes and using spoils from cave excavation (from the housing) can create access routes. Side channels can feed water from gabion silt fields and well-shaded dams into the side canyons. The flattish floors of the wadi can be irrigated and cultivated, and the main channel can be used to direct water flows away from fields. A windmill can be positioned above a well to pump fresh water to water storage uphill, so it can be gravity-fed back to the house.

1.1.2.8. 11.18 – Scarp and Wadi Plan [ANMTN]

1.1.2.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A wadi system that has been designed for settlement has obvious characteristics. Dams will be on the upper surfaces for flood collection, and they can be fed to shade-protected tanks and ponds for irrigation for wall-banked fields on the wadi floor. These fields gradually fall downhill in a series, and they hold an average of half to a meter each of floodwater for infiltration to trees and crops. Outside the wadi, swale lines on the pediment slopes capture surface runoff for large rain events, and the swales can support productive trees and opportunistic crops. A windmill can be installed in line with the wadi entrance, and it can pull up water that has been infiltrated through this design to recycle back to the tanks.

1.1.2.9. 11.19 – Residuals, Domes and Inselbergs [VIDEO]

1.1.2.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Residual domes are simple compared to wadis and scarps, as they are just one large rock. The domes don’t usually have deep valleys but simply slope steeply into sandy soil. Small valleys may be worn in and have vegetation and even trees, but large trees and humus can be developed on the shady side, where shelters may already exist. Domes are 100% runoff, and they can be harvested with the same (as wadis and scarps) ratio of twenty to one catchment to cultivation of crops, fruit trees, and palms. Steep shaded cliffs can possibly provide tiny rock dams for extra, gravity-fed water. On smaller domes (10-20 meters across), a concrete gutter lead water to an underground tank with shade over it. The tank can support ferns, which frogs will use for habitat, and can have a wildlife ramp to support desert biodiversity. That water can also be used to create a small garden. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Residual domes are just one large rock with steep sloping sides that generally meet sandy soils. - They are 100% runoff, and that water can be harvested for small gardens.

1.1.2.10. 11.20 – Rock Dome Water Led to Vegetation [ANMTN]

1.1.2.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Rock domes are 100% rain runoff surface that can easily be led off to storage or irrigation. There can be stone-carved or concrete gutters directing rainwater to walled fields at least 1/20 the size of the catchment area of the dome. Concrete gutters can lead runoff to field infiltration or concrete-lined cisterns just underground with thick thatched roofs to prevent evaporation, as well as stop large animals from drinking all the water. Splash rocks around the pond will grow ferns and provide habitat for frogs, while fish can feed on flies and desert insects.

1.1.3. Modules 11.21 to 11.30

1.1.3.1. 11.21 – Inselbergs [ANMTN]

1.1.3.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Inselbergs are isolated hills rising abruptly out of plains and are often granite or metamorphic sandstones. When rains occur, runoff is a guarantee, but surrounding soils are very sandy, requiring sound strategy. The shady sides of inselbergs will support forests, if they are pioneered with well-directed runoff water. Caves, often on the shady side, make good shelters. On the sunny side, gutters can direct water to sand filled dams, inside of which we can garden. Beyond the dams, plastic-lined sheet “wells” can be installed to capture overflow for more gardening and shade trees.

1.1.3.2. 11.22 – Fold Mountains [VIDEO]

1.1.3.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Fold mountains are extensive desert features that have characteristics of both scarps and inselbergs. Synclines flex downward with eroded hollows and rivers cutting through them, while anticlines raise up into high backs with vertical side valleys. Along the spines of fold mountains, rivers can create long valleys that can have large oval lakes if the exits are dammed. In fold mountains, there are more opportunities for appropriate open water storages. In addition to rivers, there is also snow melt from the typically nearby mountains. Strata acreate palisade-like formations from the interaction between soft and hard rock that act as natural swales. The soaked water from these can be sourced with bored holes, and when regulated, they can be permanent water supplies. Dry streams provide potential catchment but can’t be dammed, so they can be bled to clear water dams with contour diversions. Forests around these dams can create shade, and silt will drop in the contour trench for easy excavation. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Fold mountains have synclines that flex downwards into eroded hollows and anticlines raise up into high backs that often have vertical valleys and rivers. - Many opportunities exist for appropriate open water catchments in fold mountains.

1.1.3.3. 11.23 – Desert Mountain Profile [ANMTN]

1.1.3.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW First, the fold is created by continental drift. Valleys form in weak rock. Basin and range landscapes evolve with alternate wide valleys of the synclines and narrow valleys of the anticlines. Flatiron rock forms on the steep inter-slopes.

1.1.3.4. 11.24 – Fold Mountains [ANMTN]

1.1.3.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW First, the fold is created by continental drift. Valleys form in weak rock. Basin and range landscapes evolve with alternate wide valleys of the synclines and narrow valleys of the anticlines. Flatiron rock forms on the steep inter-slopes.

1.1.3.5. 11.25 – Headwater Stream Diversion [ANMTN]

1.1.3.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Fast-moving water runoff from fold mountain systems can be designed to go into dams and infiltrate to soil storages. With a bleed-out point on the extremity of a bend and flow restrictors just down stream, water is led into silt traps onto reed beds and into shaded dams of clear water. The silt trap can be cleaned out regularly to add fertility to tree-growing systems.

1.1.3.6. 11.26 – Dune Country [VIDEO]

1.1.3.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Sand dunes occur on solid surfaces and are formed by the wind. They come in many forms: Traverses are across winds, longitudes are with winds, obliques are slanted to winds, crescents curve away from winds, seas are wave forms with lobe edges, and isolated dunes form dull crescents. After good rains, dunes can be planted with hardy annual legumes (moth bean or yam bean), hardy grains (sorgum or millet), and/or desert legume trees (acacia or prosopis). A little organic fertilizer will help them grow, and they should be mulched with straw, which will be long-lasting in the desert. After a year, larger trees can be planted between the legumes, and the base of the dune will become stable. Seed pellets can also help with re-vegetating a pitted landscape. The pellets, as well as organic material, collect in the pits. Mixed with deterrents, like neem powder and bitter tea, the seed pellets are safe from animals, and the clay balls wait for rains, at which time they will melt and pioneering seeds can germinate. The plants then stabilize the dune. Coastal dunes, blown apart by wind rather than rain, can be stabilized with brush fences. Installed a meter high and in seven-meter squares, the fences act like windbreak shelters for young trees to get a start. Inside the dunes, there is a lens of moisture that tree roots can reach, and thus they stabilize the dunes. Trees can be helped with special techniques for planting. By inserting a basket or box with organic material about 30 centimeters into the dune, a seedling has fertilizer and shelter from harsh weather conditions. This works well to speed up the process to re-stabilization. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Sand dunes are formed on hard surfaces by wind. - After good rains, sand dunes can be planted to hardy plants that can survive the climate. - Trees and vegetation help to stabilize dunes.

1.1.3.7. 11.27 – Machine Blades for Pitting [ANMTN]

1.1.3.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW By using trailing discs behind a tractor, we can pit desert landscapes to prevent runoff and dust storms. The pits are good seed sites that capture nutrients, native seeds, and layers of sand.

1.1.3.8. 11.28 – Dune Stabilisation [VIDEO]

1.1.3.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List many elements that can help to stabilise dunes - Elaborate as to how to begin tree systems for dune stabilisation BRIEF OVERVIEW Stability can be provided by pebbles and vegetation, as well as naturally occurring lichen, fungi, and algae mats, but stabilization can also come from tars, oils and glues, which lock in moisture. Salt crusts can also stabilize, but they must be protected from hoofs, cars, and plowing. In urgent situations, pebbles, brush fencing, and tar can help. The fencing should be a meter tall and spaced in seven meter squares, inside of which hardy tree species can be planted. They should be planted at least 15 centimeters below the surface to help them avoid lethal temperatures. Trees — the prosopis is great for this — eventually grow to heights where they cast their own shade to keep roots cool. Once these types of cover ups are established, other plant species can be established, and with a root net below, more organic fertilizers can be added. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Stability is naturally provided by pebbles, vegetation, lichen, fungi, and algae mats. - Stabilization can also be provided with tars, oils, and glues, which can lock in moisture. - Salt crusts also stabilize, but they shouldn’t be damage by hooves, cars, or plows. - Establishing tree systems will stabilize the dunes more permanently.

1.1.3.9. 11.29 – Dune Stabilisation Strategies [ANMTN]

1.1.3.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Shifting crescent-shaped sand dunes can be stabilized with brush fences staked across the wind. This creates and oval dune with a swale on the steeper, upwind side that can infiltrate water, which allows the dune to be planted with appropriate, adapted vegetation for further stability. A lens of damp soil forms at the base of the dune, and large trees, like acasia and presopas, can greatly aid this process if planted at the center of the dune. Smaller trees and bushes can be planted down the sloping sides.

1.1.3.10. 11.30 – Depressions and Basins [VIDEO]

1.1.3.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain how depressions and gilgais form BRIEF OVERVIEW Depressions and basins are low, flat, almost circular features. They can be large enough to hold salt lakes. They can be clay or salt pans where water evaporates and leaves deposits. Clay pans can be treated with gypsum to drain better or bentonite to seal better. Gilgais are small depressions created from the swelling and shrinking of clays, and they pick up organic matter from the wind. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Depressions are low, flat, almost circular features. - They can be large enough to hold salt lakes. They are where water evaporates and leaves deposits of either salt or clay.

1.1.4. Modules 11.31 to 11.40

1.1.4.1. 11.31 – Scalds [VIDEO]

1.1.4.1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Define scalds - Illustrate how to use low banks to repair a scald BRIEF OVERVIEW Scolds are clay surfaces with a slope that has a flow in and a flow out of it. Clay was the original subsoil, and sandy loam topsoil has eroded away, often due to overgrazing. The surface can be cut and a low bank built on the upslope such that water builds up a third of the way to the higher bank. This area will build up silt and sediment and can be seeded to trees. Above it, we can plant cover vegetation. Once the sediment creates a terrace, the process is repeated, and doing so twice repairs the entire landscape. The banks must be kept low, so they don’t drown plants. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Scolds are clay surfaces with a slope, allowing flows in and out. - Clay is the original subsoil, and sandy-loamy topsoil has completely eroded, usually from overgrazing. - The surface can be cut, a bank installed upslope, and build-ups of silt, water, and sediment will repair the landscape.

1.1.4.2. 11.32 – Revegetation of Scalds [ANMTN]

1.1.4.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Scarred clay pans that have been washed by floods can be re-vegetated by using a road grader to side-cast clay ridges to the uphill side, creating retention banks across the water flow. Banks twenty-centimeters high will have holes on the downhill side, and they will back-flood water a third of the way up the slope, aiding infiltration. Vegetation can be initiated after the first good rain. The trenches only fill during major events. Over time, the banks level out and new banks can be installed to supply new planting. Eventually, the scar is healed.

1.1.4.3. 11.33 – Claypans [VIDEO]

1.1.4.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize what happens within clay pans and how they can vegetate the landscape BRIEF OVERVIEW Clay pans don’t overflow but fill with water that soaks into a thin lens or evaporates, leaving behind clay deposits. Grasses grow, and waterfowl make nests. Outside the pans, there is reedy vegetation, and animals move into to take advantage as the pan dries. The pans can be ripped or pitted and then seeded to vegetate them. Once the vegetation survives, it will open up the pan to more infiltration and wildlife, rejuvenating the landscape. The pan can also be ridged in a meter-high checkerboard pattern to grow tress on the mounds. This eventually creates marshland full of organic life cycles. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Clay pans don’t overflow. They hold water until it evaporates, leaving behind clay deposits. - These systems can be vegetated by ripping or pitting them and then seeding the area. - Once vegetation is established, the pan opens up to more plants and wildlife, eventually becoming marshland.

1.1.4.4. 11.34 – Saltpans and Salt Lakes [VIDEO]

1.1.4.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Realize how salt pans are formed and how to buffer the salt-lake effect BRIEF OVERVIEW Salt pans are features of the desert, and they are literally lakes of evaporated moisture with salt left behind. The salt is washed down from saline or salted landscapes or from deep, salty waters that have been pumped up for irrigation. The margins can be planted to salt-tolerant trees, such as tamarisk. The tamarisk can be planted around the lake, creating an edge of organic matter that buffers the salt-lake effect. Then, less tolerant species can be planted around that. These landscapes take a long, long time to recover. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Salt pans are lakes of evaporated moisture that has left salt behind. - The margins can be planted with salt-tolerant trees to create an organic buffer around the lake. - The landscape takes a very long time to recover.

1.1.4.5. 11.35 – Gilgais [VIDEO]

1.1.4.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Relate what gilgais are, how they are formed, and what overgrazing does to them BRIEF OVERVIEW Gilgais are small patches of clay, three to four meters wide and six to 20 centimeters deep. They are caused by the swelling and shrinking of clay, and they often appear in groups that eventually merge to become hollows. These become shallow pools that link up to create very fertile and bio-diverse areas with lots of birds and wildlife. However, overgrazing stresses the plants out, and that can turn the pools into mounds of sand, destroying the life around them. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Gigais are small depressions formed by the swelling and shrinking of clay. - They are three or four meters wide and six to 20 centimeters deep. - They turn into pools that link up to create very fertile areas. - Overgrazing can stress out plants and cause gilgais to become sand mounds instead of pools.

1.1.4.6. 11.36 – Flood-Outs, Gullies and Badlands [VIDEO]

1.1.4.6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Define flood-outs - Provide strategies for diverting waters from gullies and stopping erosion - Explain how to begin repairing badlands BRIEF OVERVIEW Flood-outs are continuously widening valleys with flat floors. Streams are shallow (2-8 cm deep) and at least 20 meters wide, often in a braided pattern. Water soaks over wide pans, and when overgrazed these turn into gullies. Gullies have streams that become deep channels, and they need to be cut off at the head, diverting water sideways to overflow gently onto the landscape. Large gullies then need to be planted, and gabions can be installed to create silt fields. Soils here are fragile and have recent sediment and shale, so it is imperative to avoid overgrazing, driving, or any disruption while the gully repairs itself. On the landscape above, rip lines can be cut from the gullies down to take off erosion pressure. Small gullies can likely be filled, drained, and/or cut through to stop erosion. Badlands are often too expansive to repair fully, but it begins with silt dams in valleys. They should be small and frequent, absorbing the water flows and creating fertile silt fields. Stone gabions half a meter high can build up sediment behind them and spread the flow of water. If there are no boulders, very sturdy fences can be put in and covered with wire on both sides to create a silt field where the water reaches them and a splash guard where it departs. Pioneering legumes can then improve the soil and a diverse polyculture can be gradually installed. Ultimately, very controlled forest crops can be part of the system. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Flood-outs are widening valleys with very shallow, very wide streams, often flowing in braids. - Gullies are the result of flood-outs being overgrazed, and the streams become deep channels. - Gullies should be stopped at the head, the water diverted to passive overflows and the gully planted. - Badlands can begin reparations with silt dams and gabion weirs to spread water and create planting spaces.

1.1.4.7. 11.37 – Strategies for Healing Active Gully Erosion [ANMTN]

1.1.4.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Strategies for healing gully erosion include filling small gullies and planting them to trees and diverting headwaters with check dams and deflector banks, moving the water out to diversion drains, swales, and spreader banks. The swales hold water off the side walls while growing trees, and the spreader banks disperse water gentle down the hill. Gabions can be installed on the gully floor with trees planted on the silt fields and at the sides of the gully to add stability.

1.1.4.8. 11.38 – Riplines Divert Water from Gully Erosion [ANMTN]

1.1.4.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Gully erosion can be prevented by interceptor banks, spreader drains, grassed spillways, and dam walls just below cuts to divert water to swales on contour. This can be improved with rip lines between swales that flow out toward the ridges from the gully erosion lip. Gabions in the gully act as sediment-catching weirs that allow trees to be planted on the sediments and gully sides.

1.1.4.9. 11.39 – A series of Weirs and Gabions [ANMTN]

1.1.4.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Gully erosion can be controlled by strong wire fences with wire overlaying the ground on both sides, the upslope side for sediment catching and the downhill as a splash guard. Stone-filled wire cages act as weirs, slowing the flow and settling sediment behind them as level terraces. If they remain only about half a meter high and are spaced in even rows about ten meters apart they are more likely to survive severe floods.

1.1.4.10. 11.40 – Stony Desert [VIDEO]

1.1.4.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Illustrate making windrowed stone downslope of swales to vegetate the landscape BRIEF OVERVIEW tone gibber deserts, or regs, are large areas covered with stones revealed by wind erosion. The stones can be windrowed on contour with swales upslope, and the stones provide condensation and soak in runoff. Trees can be planted below the windrowed mounds and vegetation above the swales. Insects, reptiles, and small birds move into the stone piles, leaving manure and decomposing bodies. Between windrows, the ground can be ripped and vegetated. When we windrow in stages to grow trees, we can reduce erosion, and the wind actually brings in new dust and organic matter from outside. On steep slopes, windrows can direct water to irrigation channels. We are working to maximize absorption. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Stone gibber deserts are large areas covered in stones uncovered by wind erosion. - Windrows of the stones can be used to harvest and soak more water, as well as prevent erosion, acquire new organic material, and vegetate the area.

1.1.5. Modules 11.41 to 11.50

1.1.5.1. 11.41 – Gibber Desert in Windrows [ANMTN]

1.1.5.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Stone deserts can be easily worked and material side-casted downhill to form swales with stone piles downslope for excellent tree-planting sites on contour. The area can be ripped on contour down to twenty centimeters to maximize water infiltration. Swales can be spaced at a distance of ten times the height of mature trees to provide shade and wind buffering.

1.1.5.2. 11.42 – Lower Foothills and Plains [VIDEO]

1.1.5.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Discuss harvesting the water flow and growing trees on the relatively level plains BRIEF OVERVIEW Lower foothills and plains have slope, but it is very hard to see without an eye level or observing sheet flow. It is often browsed down and nearly dead. Circle swales between 20 and 100 meters across can be installed by casting out a ditch. This stops sheet flow and absorbs all the water that falls within the circle. Trees can be planted around the outside of the bank and vegetation in the trench. Gradually, the circle can be planted and grazed. Also, long, shallow swales are easy and cheap to install, and they collect a lot of water. Trees can be planted below the berms, and the back-flood is a thin sheet of water over the earth behind the swale, the land under which can be planted as the water recedes. Another option is to direct the water to walled fields for cultivating different crops. These areas can be quickly recovered. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Lower foothills and plains have slopes, though they are hard to detect. - Circle swales or long swales can be installed to stop sheet flows and help to vegetate the area.

1.1.5.3. 11.43 – Ditch and Bank Landscape in Plains [ANMTN]

1.1.5.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A circular disc and mound pan system on a flat plain landscape can prevent all water runoff. All water falling in a pan of roughly twenty to thirty meters in diameter soaks into the landscape along the sides, where forage species can grow. Hardy trees can be planted inside the pan and around the ditch. Pellet seeds can help to begin vegetating the ditches. With these pans covering the landscape, a large proportion of desert can be greened up.

1.1.5.4. 11.44 – Yeomans' Shallow Swales [ANMTN]

1.1.5.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Shallow swale banks are easy and cheap to install on very flat desert landscape. The mounds can be used to grow trees, and swivel pipes can be installed to bleed to fields for opportunistic crops. Mark As Complete

1.1.5.5. 11.45 – Swale Construction [ANMTN]

1.1.5.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Surface runoff water infiltration can be great for starting growing systems. Swales by roadsides provide tree water for growing shade to cool urban streets. They infiltrate water between two and twenty-four hours and provide ample irrigation after early vegetation establishment. Trees will shade the swales, which have vines up the trees, shrubs at the sides, and semi-aquatics at the base. The roadside swale has no mound but needs a dead level sill at the sides, yet the base depth can vary if necessary. The base can be ripped, sanded, graveled, or planted. Dry dams (limonia) fed by hard surface runoff are surrounded by compacted earth walls that hold one to 1.5 meters of flood water until it soaks into the ground. Limonias have overflow provided by rock-base spillways, and diverse forests establish in the base of the dam.

1.1.5.6. 11.46 – Harvesting of Water in Arid Lands [VIDEO]

1.1.5.6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize the role that salt plays when harvesting water in the desert landscape BRIEF OVERVIEW When harvesting water in arid lands, water is the limiting factor for designers because we need water that is 700 PPM or less of salt. That means that we have to harvest the water before it has a chance to mix with salty water or before it runs off of hard surfaces. But, we can’t waste a drop of water, so we must divert all wastewater and sheet-flowing water to gardens. Our goal is to slow the water down, spread it out, and give it time to soak into the landscape. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Water harvesting in arid areas is limited by the need for water to be 700 PPM or less of salt. - Water should be harvested before it can mix with salty water or before it leaves hard surfaces. - We need to slow water down, spread it out, and let it soak into the landscape.

1.1.5.7. 11.47 – The Conservation of Rainwater [VIDEO]

1.1.5.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List sources from which water can be harvested - Outline basic strategies for harvesting and storing roof water for domestic use - Generalize settlements with regards to water, access, and structures BRIEF OVERVIEW Roof water can be stored in tanks or sealed wells to supply drinking water. Runoff from hard surfaces of all kinds can be stored in roofed tanks. Swales along roadsides are the cheapest way to catch water, and they can be ripped in the base then graveled or sanded to increase absorption. Extra diversion drains from outside sources can lead to the swales, doubling their harvesting capacity. For settlements, water should be the first consideration, followed by access routes and then structures. Houses can then be orientated to the environment, and roadside swales will provide shade trees, as well as extra material. Lawns should be excluded from design, and under-mulch drip irrigation should be used for cultivation. Gravel reed beds can be clean grey water, and dry composting toilets can save tens of thousands of liters of water per household per year. We know that one millimeter of rain on one square meter of surface provides one liter of water, so we can use this to plan catchments. Domestic water tanks up to 100,000 liters in volume can be constructed of concrete for long-lasting, economically sound water storage. They can be built under buildings to act as a cool thermal mass or as the walls of cellars. Very large tanks can be roofed to catch their own water, and when paired with a windmill or solar pump, water can be sent to storages upslope to be gravity-fed back down. Rainwater doesn’t go stagnant. If tanks are properly screened, then mosquitoes are not a problem. A natural anaerobic decomposition occurs at the bottom of tanks, which helps to keep the water clean and clear. A suspended bag of limestone, dolomite, marble, or shells can help to keep the water hard and prevent trouble with toxins. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Roof water should be stored in tanks or sealed wells for drinking water. - Hard surfaces of any kind can supply runoff for storage. Swales along roadsides are the cheapest catchments for non-drinking water. - Development designers should first consider water then access then structures. - Gravel reed beds can clean grey water, and dry composting toilets can eliminate black waste water. - Rainwater doesn’t go stagnant. It lasts for years.

1.1.5.8. 11.49 – Large Tanks Forming Foundations [ANMTN]

1.1.5.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Large underground tanks can form foundations for uphill barns. They can be filled from roof catchments, and a space can be left between them to form a cool cellar. Water will then gravity flow to the house or irrigation from a pipe installed at the bottom of the tank and an overflow at the top of it.

1.1.5.9. 11.48 – Bare Rock Slab with Gutter to Storage [ANMTN]

1.1.5.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A bare rock slab can be fitted with a concrete gutter to lead all water to a shallow limonia that can overflow to a roofed storage tank for the house, stock animals, or wildlife.

1.1.5.10. 11.50 – Swales for Roof Drip [ANMTN]

1.1.5.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Small domestic garden swales can be filled with pebbles, fed from a roof drip, and provide a shaded water source for a vine trellis.

1.1.6. Modules 11.51 to 11.62

1.1.6.1. 11.51 – Water Harvesting on Open Sites for Tanks or Cisterns [VIDEO]

1.1.6.1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain how water harvesting in earth tanks can create an oasis BRIEF OVERVIEW In areas with good clays, earth tanks can be built in the ground, and they should be deep and narrow to minimized surface area, reducing evaporation. The earth around the tanks can be shaped to drain into them at particular points of input, creating a catchment area while eliminating erosive worries. With swales, tanks, and cisterns, 30 centimeters or more of rain can create a suburban oasis. Water can be directed into settlements to easily supply all the water needs, and the value of this water harvesting far outweighs the cost of the necessary construction. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Earth tanks can be built in the ground where soils are clay. - They should be narrow, deep, and roofed to minimize evaporation. - The area surrounding the tanks can be shaped to drain into them at specific points of entry to prevent erosion.

1.1.6.2. 11.52 – Run-Off Agriculture [ANMTN]

1.1.6.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Traditional use of runoff in scarps and pediment areas starts by slowing the runoff from top surfaces through the vertical side wadi and down to the entrance, as well as encouraging hardy trees to slow the water flows in big events. Near the entrance, a diversion drain can be excavated at the base of the scarp cliff to direct water back to the entrance. At the top of the external pediment, wells can be installed to access the lens of water below. Swales and brush fences can be installed to slow and control floods and feed opportunistic fields.

1.1.6.3. 11.53 – Clay Catchement Sloping to Cistern [ANMTN]

1.1.6.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW In country that isn’t too steep and has high clay content in the soil, a small clay catchment can be shaped to direct runoff water. A roofed and shaded underground cistern can be designed to store the water. Mounds can be built at the sides to act as silt traps for cleaning the water, as well as stop animals from entering and drowning. Mark As Complete

1.1.6.4. 11.54 – Strategies in Headwaters [ANMTN]

1.1.6.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The strategies in headwaters change with slope angles. Absorption wells, one-meter-wide and four-meter-deep, and/or boomerang rock walls can be installed at an eighteen-degree slope. At fourteen degrees, there can be meter-high, silt-spreading terraces. Swales spaced at roughly thirty meters can be installed on slopes of seven degrees, and they can connect to foothill limonia or dams. Below this, there are usually salt pans or basin lakes.

1.1.6.5. 11.55 – Water Spreading [VIDEO]

1.1.6.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Analyze the normal runoff on overgrazed lands and how to prevent salinization - Give examples of impediments that prevent water absorption and harvesting - Outline how to approach designing a desert landscape for stability BRIEF OVERVIEW Overgrazed landscapes lose most rainwater to runoff, so dry streams become torrents full of debris, which eventually spreads out over lower plains. In this case, the water either picks up salt on the way down or goes to the ocean, but it is lost to us. We need to catch it high in the landscape and soak it into soils. This will help to de-salt aquifers with designs to flush them with fresh water from dams, swales, tree lines, deep-ripped contours, lines of stones, and natural rock palisades. For stability, 70 to 80 percent of land needs to be designed for forests and water harvesting, whereas only 20 to 30 percent should be integrated crop production. Possible water systems should be the deciding factor for designed placement patterns, and settlements should be placed off of devastating water flows, which can be diverted with oversized earthworks. In deserts, 88% of water is lost to runoff and evaporation and only 12% available to plants, whereas those figures are the opposite in forested areas. We can use maximum 24-hour rainfall stats to over-estimate catchment and storage systems. Higher, smaller streams move faster, which makes them more destructive. Large, low-lying streams slow water flows. Storages and retardation basins reduce or delay flood peaks, and the destructive flows are interrupted by retention banks, swales, and swamps. Decreases in vegetation cause increases in runoff. Heavy rains after hot, dry summers cause the most erosion, and broad-scale fires and cultivation before rains cause massive erosive problems. But, we can design well so that these large rain events can provide for our needs. Roofs, roads, car parks, concreted structures, and compacted grounds must be accounted for, as do non-wetting sands, hard clays, and rocks for their fast runoff. Sand storms should be monitored because they can seal natural intakes for aquifers, which will slow spring flows. Infiltration rates need to be considered, and artificial intakes are necessary over large areas. With rainfall data, we can estimate runoff and design to make the most of it. KEY TAKEAWAYS - On overgrazed landscapes, most water is lost to runoff and evaporation. - Runoff water goes to the low plains, picking up salt or draining the ocean, so that we can no longer use it. - Dams, swales, tree lines, deep-ripped contours, lines of stones, and natural stone palisades can all help to stop, spread, and soak water into soil. - Storages and retardation basins reduce and delay flood peaks, and retention banks, swales, and swamps interrupt destructive water flows. - With rainfall data, we can estimate potential runoff and design to both lessen its destructive effects and harvest it for productive use.

1.1.6.6. 11.56 – Salt in Landscape Water [ANMTN]

1.1.6.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The salt in landscape water that has drained from a wadi rapidly picks up as it drains from plains. Shallow groundwater moving slowly also picks up salt. Saltwater can be as dense as 400 parts per million within a few hundred meters of a wadi entrance, so windmills should be located close to the hills, drawing fresh water from the mid-depths. Below that water are very salty leads we don’t want to interfere with.

1.1.6.7. 11.57 – Halting and Absorbing Water Run-Off [VIDEO]

1.1.6.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Summarize the basics of how to stop, spread, and soak water in the desert - Identify the different catchment techniques available for different soils and landscapes BRIEF OVERVIEW We want to stop, spread, and soak water into the ground. This will make a destructive force, flooding water flows, into a life-enhancing force. We want to soak the water into perched aquifers, being careful to avoid the deeper saltwater leads. Then, minimum, modest use of aquifers can be for growing drought-tolerant trees. Streams should have broad intakes so that they don’t clog, and they can be de-silted, with the silt used as a growing medium. Once these systems are established, the trees will regulate them. In the meantime, it’s sensible to install depth-marking steel pegs to monitor the silt levels. In clay, the base of swales can be ripped and gypsum added to increase infiltration. On sandy slopes, erosion can be interrupted with exaggerated swale banks with trees, which will eventually become level terraces. The level terraces will pacify water flows and can be planted back to crops, and this will continuously recharge the landscape and possibly make permanent springs. Dams store water visibly, but swales can soak water over kilometers of land. Swales systems can take overflows out of the back of dams to hydrate the landscape. Really, settlements only need two dams, one for clean water and one for swimming. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We want to stop, spread, and soak water into soils. - Modestly using aquifers to establish drought-tolerant trees helps to establish a self-regulating recharge system. - Swales and level, vegetated terraces can spread and soak water to continuously recharge aquifers and even create permanent springs. - Settlements only need two dams, one for clean water and one for swimming.

1.1.6.8. 11.58 – Designs for Sorting Preferred Solids [ANMTN]

1.1.6.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW We can design patterned waterways to deposit and sort materials. A stepped cascade can catch heavy metals on the hollows. Silt traps are created by deepening and widening water courses. Steering the flow into the main channel creates scour holes, while steering the flow out creates deposits of materials like logs, organic matter, and silt.

1.1.6.9. 11.59 – Limonia [VIDEO]

1.1.6.9.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Define what a limonia is and explain how to build one - Elaborate on how to develop and maintain an orchard in a limonia BRIEF OVERVIEW A limonia is an unusual feature that captures hard surface runoff from huge rocks. Essentially, they are dry dams with good soils and used to produce self-irrigated orchards with a date palm over-story. They are constructed by building a large earth bank, roughly a meter high and two meters wide that traps water and creates an ephemeral lake during rain events. There are level spillways about 40 centimeters high at the ends of the wall, where they butt up against the stone, and emergency gabions to allow safe overflow in serious rains. Establishing the orchard can be difficult during the early stages, but once more canopy is there, the trees shade the system and provide organic matter. A little cultivation between the trees will help the ground soak in more water, and opportunistic crops can be planted there after rain events. This system should not be grazed. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Limonia capture hard-surface runoff form large rocks — inselbergs — in the desert. - They are huge earth banks that create ephemeral lakes during rain events, and this supports self-irrigating orchards with date palm over-stories.

1.1.6.10. 11.60 – Aquifer Intake Areas [VIDEO]

1.1.6.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Appraise the landscape for aquifer intake areas - Examine potential issues with aquifer intakes and how to address them - Recognize what qanats are BRIEF OVERVIEW Aquifer intake areas include ridges, plateaus, and slopes of detritus, both geological and organic material. Channels can be dug below the surface to infiltrate water deep into the ground, and dense forests are the classic infiltration systems. Loose gravel, shattered and soluble rocks, dune sand caps, high slopes of limestone, and fissures all help to recharge water. Flat areas can work as perched aquifers in sands above clay soils and desert pavements, causing water to seep out of the dune base to provide for local trees. Volcanic ash, mudslides, and fine dusts and sands blown in from overgrazed or cultivated plains can clog intakes, so we have to look out for them. Windbreaks help with dusts from outside areas. Intake areas can be increased with tree-planting on ridges, deep interceptor drains, ripped rock pavement and capstone, diversion drains to wells, boulder banks, pits and swales. Trees keep systems maintained and stop dusts for clogging them. Qanats, underground canals, can bring water to the surface in a constant flow. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Aquifer intakes include ridges, plateaus, and slopes of geological and/or organic detritus. - Channels dug on contour below the surface can help water infiltrate deep into the landscape. - Dense forests are great infiltrators, which also regulate harvesting systems. - Loose gravel, shattered and soluble rocks, dune sand caps, high slope limestone, and fissures all help to recharge water. - We have to work to protect intakes, removing debris from volcanic ash, wind-blown dust and sand, and mudslides. - Intake areas can be increased by planting trees, installing interceptor drains, ripping rock pavement, diverting water to wells, creating boulder banks, digging pits, and constructing swales.

1.1.6.11. 11.61 – Aquifer Intake Areas [ANMTN]

1.1.6.11.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The intakes of aquifers are different, and we can help recharge them by design. In sediments above impervious rock layers, aquifers can be perched water tables. Shallow sand aquifers can be accessed with a pipe to be easily pumped and recharged. Bore holes are recharged by hill country, but care is necessary not to draw saltwater up from below the lens.

1.1.6.12. 11.62 – Qanats [ANMTN]

1.1.6.12.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Qanats are ancient systems of underground water tunnels. A shaft is excavated until it hits fresh water tables, and an underground tunnel is started on the hills just below the intake areas, moving down, away from the hill — not quite horizontally — towards flatter areas. The excavated material is taken up through a repeated set of shafts in a line to make the extraction of tailings easier. Eventually, the qanat reaches the surface with a continuous flow of water that can’t be turned off.

1.2. Module 11b

1.2.1. Modules 11b.1 to 11b.10

1.2.1.1. 11b.1 – Chapter 11 Course Notes; Part Two [PDF]

1.2.1.1.1. Infiltration, Stabilisation, and Harvesting Infiltration is when water soaks into soils (or other materials), and infiltration rates differ with each type of material. In desert climates, where clay soils are often alkaline, slightly acidic sands can be spread a meter deep to enhance water infiltration and storage, and this arrangement creates ideal gardens because roots can break up the clay beneath and add humus to the sands. This sand-clay soil preparation actually occurs naturally at the exits of canyons, where floods distribute material. On grander landscapes, deep swales will interrupt water flows, catching debris and water, eventually forming level terraces, or in areas with quick-draining soils, layers of clay, gley, or tar can seal gardens to retain moisture. Continued...

1.2.1.2. 11b.2 – Infiltration [VIDEO]

1.2.1.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Define infiltration, noting the rates at which it occurs in different materials - Realize the potential of spreading sand over clay soils - Give examples of methods for spreading and capturing water in desert gardens BRIEF OVERVIEW Infiltration is the soakage of water into soils or other materials, and rain infiltrates at different speeds into different materials. An inch of water (25mm) will take two or three hours to soak into fine dust soils, six to 36 hours into clay loams, and up to 48 hours into heavy clays. Neutral or slightly acidic sand can be spread a meter deep over alkaline clay soils to store water for longer periods of time. This makes ideal gardens because trees and plant roots will break up the clays and provide organic matter — humus — in the sands. This type of system occurs naturally at discharge points of canyons, where moisture distributes material. Deep swales interrupt water flow. They can catch sands and gravels to create intentionally designed growing spaces, level terraces of clay soils. In other areas, layers of clay, gley, or tar can be used to seal gardens. This would drown plants in humid climates but helps them thrive in deserts. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Infiltration is the soakage of water into soils and other materials. - Rain infiltrates at different speeds into different materials. - Neutral or acidic sands can be added atop alkaline clays to create ideal gardens. - Swales interrupt water flow and can catch sands/gravel to create designed growing spaces. - Clay, gley, or tar can be used to seal gardens in spaces that drain to quickly.

1.2.1.3. 11b.3 – Slope Stabilisation for Infiltration [VIDEO]

1.2.1.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain how clumping grasses can be used to increase slope stabilization - List other possibilities for infiltration elements BRIEF OVERVIEW Slope stabilization can begin with how to plant perennial clumping vegetation, which will establish roots to increase stabilization and infiltration. Planted on slopes, these clumping grasses will slow moisture down and collect detritus. The moisture will then soak into the detritus and move to the root zones, further stabilizing the slope. These plantings can be on contour or in crescents with the points upslope, which will build up soils to create good planting zones. In colder drylands, tussock grasses and mosses perform these same functions. Swales, wadi dams, level gardens, and soakage pit are all water infiltration elements. Swales are the easiest to install and cover large stretches of landscape. Wadi dams create level silt fields and are good for local food forests. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Perennial clumping vegetation planted on contour or in upward facing crescent increases stabilization and infiltration. - Tussock grasses and mosses perform the same stabilizing and infiltrating functions in colder drylands. - Swales, wadi dams, level gardens, and soakage pits are also water infiltration elements.

1.2.1.4. 11b.4 – Floodwater Harvesting [VIDEO]

1.2.1.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize that floodwaters can be as much a benefit as a disaster - Describe how to build a flood pan for catching nutrient-rich material on the plains - Analyze the needs of opportunistic gardens that work in inconsistent but flooding rains BRIEF OVERVIEW Floodwaters can be a disaster, but they can also be a solution because there is a lot to harvest in them. They create delta like deposits at the mouths of wadis, and floods are rich in nutrients from collected manures, organic material, shells, and so on. We can also design flood pan patterns across the plains, with each pan draining to the same corner where a silt trap collects fertile materials. A low earth bank should be around the pan, and it should be stabilized on the inside with rocks and on the outside with hardy plants. We can garden in the pan, surrounding the nutrient-rich silt traps, and we can plant stick cuttings into the wall to further stabilize it and add organic matter inside the pan. With rains of eight centimeters or more, we can expect runoff, and these opportunistic gardens will ideally harvest from areas 15 to 27 times their size. While the floods are inconsistent, the system must be set up to receive the water and deposits when the events do happen. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Floodwaters can be disastrous, or with the right design, they can be solution. - Flood pan patterns across the landscape can provide fertile, opportunistic gardens after rain events. - While rains may be inconsistent, we must be prepared to take full advantage when they do come.

1.2.1.5. 11b.5 – Braided Streams [VIDEO]

1.2.1.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Illustrate what a braided stream is - Explain different methods for extending the braiding in the streams - Outline how using planting pans can help to vegetate these areas BRIEF OVERVIEW Braided stream patterns spread water flows from a main channel to many small ones coming off it and moving back in. The smaller streams are vegetated and create a continuous deposition of silt and sand. It’s possible to extend braids of water by installing a notched weir where the natural braiding begins. The weir can spread and create more numerous braids. At spots, placed rocks or concrete can cause the braided flows to split again, extending the effect even further. The braided pattern will begin to form rough diamond shapes, which can be transformed into planting pans. Notches (deep holes) with rocks around them can be installed where the braided streams cross, and this will increase the amount of soakage. The whole landscape can then be vegetated. This is a great way to maximize water before it hits rivers or salt pans and becomes unusable. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Braided stream patterns occur naturally on desert plains and spread water out from the main channel. - Braided streams can be extended and created by installing notched weirs. - As the braided streams cross, forming rough diamonds in the soil, deep holes can be installed as silt traps, which can be planted around. - The pattern allows us to maximize water soakage before it reaches rivers or salt pans, where we lose it.

1.2.1.6. 11b.6 – Braided Streams and Notches Weir [ANMTN]

1.2.1.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A natural braid pattern occurs in sands at the center of a floodplain. Notched weirs will spread water across a floodplain. A notched weir with a concrete sill as a spreader wall will initiate braiding patterns in sandy rivers to help disperse the flow.

1.2.1.7. 11b.7 – Notches Weir (Elevation) [ANMTN]

1.2.1.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A notched weir well anchored in the base and sides of the stream, with the bank of notches level to each other, enables us to widen, slow, and harvest the floodwaters.

1.2.1.8. 11b.8 – Scour Holes [VIDEO]

1.2.1.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Discuss the effects of flood events in terms of scour holes - Relate how scour holes are naturally formed or can be designed - List other useful elements that can be created around a scour hole in a river BRIEF OVERVIEW Scour holes work like desert lagoons, and they are abundant with both aquatic and terrestrial life. They are formed by rivers that pass through narrow gaps, where the flows increase in power and dig into the earth. We can also design scour holes. By creating two compact earth banks that lead runoff into the river, the added water and velocity scours a deep spot in the river. If we start to shape the river around the scour hole, we can collect detritus. We can add a deep channel and earth bank where trees will grow. We can add flood bank fields to capture moisture, silt, and organic matter. We can put up a fence that collects extra mulches and firewood. Without floods, scour holes still fill with seepage from deep sands. This seepage can be increased by installing sand dams up stream. Over time, trees will naturally grow around the scour holes, preventing evaporation. These make great swimming holes. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Scour holes are like desert lagoons, rich in aquatic and terrestrial life, that form when river flows are narrowed and, thus, dig deep into the earth. - We can design earth works to create the same effect. - Around our designed scour holes, we can include tree systems, flood bank fields, and mulch collection systems. - Scour holes continually fill with water seepage from deep sands, which can be enhanced by installing sand dams upstream.

1.2.1.9. 11b.9 – Scour Hole Lagoon, Mulch Fence [ANMTN]

1.2.1.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Solid earth rock and cement walls can be designed to curve into a desert river, stopping just before the bank to create scour hole lagoons. Strong fences constructed to curve away from the river will work as mulch and silt traps. Swales and fields can be designed to hold and infiltrate water, and bordering trees capture the backwater silt deposition.

1.2.1.10. 11b.10 – Sandy River Beds [VIDEO]

1.2.1.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Describe the ecology that forms around sandy river beds in the desert BRIEF OVERVIEW Deep sands fill river valleys. In them, we can observe that palms and large trees grow in sheltered river bays. The river banks go down to the river with one side being soft and sandy and the other rocky. Tree species will grow with respect to the conditions, some preferring the rocks and others the deep sands. Burrowing animals prefer the silt side, where they can dig. We can observe this, even when it is dry, and take advantage in our designs. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Palms and large trees grow in sheltered river bays. - Sandy river banks occur on one side of the river, and on the other side, there will be rocky banks. - Trees and animals will choose the conditions, or side of the river, more suited to their needs. - This can be observed even when systems are dry and taken advantage of in designs.

1.2.2. Modules 11b.11 to 11b.20

1.2.2.1. 11b.11 – Pitting in Sands and Light Soils [VIDEO]

1.2.2.1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain how pitting works as a water absorption system on a broad-scale - Relate different ways of pitting, small and large BRIEF OVERVIEW Pitting is a great broad-scale system, particularly suited to sands and soft soils. It insures that no runoff event will happen without water absorption, and the pits catch organic matter to add fertility and natural seeding. For small pitting, a simple disc can be towed to leave divots across the landscape, roughly on contour. Seeds can then be added, and many will natural accrue. For large pits—half a meter to a meter wide, three-quarters of a meter apart, and a third of meter deep—the excavation should be side-cast downhill, as with a swale, and they, too, should be roughly on contour. Both types of pits will green up, and they will continue to grow even in droughts. As with any desert revitalization, it’s very important to manage grazing animals. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Pitting is a broad-scale system that works well in sands and soft soils. - Small pits can be added using a towed disc that creates divots across the landscape, roughly on contour. - Large pits are about half a meter wide, three-quarters of a meter apart, and a third of a meter deep, with the side-cast downhill. - These pits will support growth during droughts.

1.2.2.2. 11b.12 – Spilling Water Downslope in Fragile Soils [VIDEO]

1.2.2.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW When spilling water over fragile soils, we have to be very careful not to form erosion gullies. We can assess the force of water flows by observing the ends of drainage pipes or where diversion drains discharge. If we can stop this erosion, that’s a good result. Long spreader banks with level sill spillways are good method, and the spillways can possibly be stabilized with vegetation but could require stones or concrete. Splash pools for spillways and pipes will prevent erosive gullies, and these can be made of concretes, rocks, or even clumping grasses, if there is enough water. Lastly, u-shaped channels can be filled with boulders, rocks, and gravel to slow water flows and allow them to drain on level. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We have to be very careful not to from erosion gullies in fragile soils. - Spreader banks with level spillways, splash pools, and u-shaped channel filled with stone are all good methods for pacifying erosive water flows.

1.2.2.3. 11b.13 – Very Long Spreader Banks [ANMTN]

1.2.2.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Long spreader banks take long concentrated erosive flows and passively sheet the water down hill. In crucial areas, a concrete core can be added to insure a perfectly passive flow.

1.2.2.4. 11b.14 – Grassed Spillways with Steering Banks [ANMTN]

1.2.2.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Water can be dropped safely downslope after crossing a level sill spreader bank then being contained between to steering banks. After passing through grasses and legumes, the clean water can be picked up in a tail drain and rerouted to its end use. The area should be fenced to prevent grazing stock damage.

1.2.2.5. 11b.15 – Sealed Spillways to Splash Pools [ANMTN]

1.2.2.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Where water has to be dropped downhill in dry land, it can be done in open pipes that splash into stone or concrete spillways to reduce the chance of erosion.

1.2.2.6. 11b.16 – Sand Dams and Clearwater Resevoirs [VIDEO]

1.2.2.6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Contrast sand dams and clear-water reservoirs - Illustrate the relationship between sand dams and clear-water reservoirs - Describe the proper construction of a sand dam and clear-water reservoir - Explain how sand dams can be used to grow trees and opportunistic crops - Give examples of how sand dams and clear-water reservoirs benefit a community BRIEF OVERVIEW Sand dams and clear-water reservoirs are almost opposites, but a sand dam is needed to create the reservoir. These are best created in the gently sloping foothills, where water surges. The sand dam wall needs to be built of rock or concrete, keyed well into the valley walls, so that it can handle the intense pressure of water and material build up. The downslope side of the wall needs a sloping curve form to act as a splash guard, and on the inside, there needs to be a constructed channel filled with rocks. The top of the wall should be completely level. The channel will move clear water to the side, where it will fill a contour dam. This contour dam will be between 1/10 and 1/20 the size of the sand dam, and it should be five to nine meters deep. Trees should be planted around it to provide shade and protection from evaporation. Trees can also be planted in the bays that collect silt and organic material upstream of the silt dam, and these can be used for opportunistic crops as well. Downhill of the sand dam, water seepage will allow for another forest to be grown. One or two of these can make an enormous difference to a community. The clear-water reservoir will stay full throughout droughts. Wildlife will be attracted to the trees and drop manures that will enrich the soil. Scour holes downslope will be continuously recharged, making for much appreciated swimming spots. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Sand dams are needed to create clear-water reservoirs. - This combination works best in the gently sloping foothills, where water flows surge. - Sand dam walls should be built of strong material and keyed several meters into the valley walls. - A channel on the upside of the sand dam wall will lead water to a clear-water reservoir elsewhere. - Trees should be planted around the reservoir, in the bays upslope in the sand dam, and just below the sand dam wall.

1.2.2.7. 11b.17 – Clearwater Dam [ANMTN]

1.2.2.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Sand dams and clear-water dams work in tandem and can be installed in dry lands. The dam wall must be installed very securely into the flood banks. A series of deep bays should be cut into the upstream banks and planted with trees for stability. A concrete wall will be a splash apron and a low spillway for low-flow event, and a rock-filled canal should direct water to the clear water dam. A safe downhill u-shaped spillway with a gravel base covered in shingles then boulders can prevent erosion in flooding events. The clear-water dam can be planted to shade trees and should be only 1/10 the surface area of the sand dam. Downstream seepage forests and opportunistic crops can be grown after flood events.

1.2.2.8. 11b.18 – Dams [VIDEO]

1.2.2.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Relate how barrier dams work differently in drylands as opposed to in stable country - Summarize an appropriate method for building sand dams BRIEF OVERVIEW Barrier dams in wooded valleys and stable country can last hundreds of years, but when they are set up in drylands, they will fill with silts and sediment. Clear-water dams have to be built off the valley and bled water from sand dams through channels and silt traps, and they need to be fenced off from livestock. The base floor of a dam needs to be clay or solid rock. After floods, the sand dam’s level silt field can be planted to opportunistic crops. The dams are built in stages, going up roughly a meter at a time as the fill. The same can be done with gabions. Then, as we incorporate these systems, we are turning the problem of erosion into the solution of water filtration. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Barrier dams in drylands fill with silt and sediment. - Clear-water dams have to be built off the valley and bled water from sand dams. - Dams are built in stages, going up a piece at a time, as the silt field levels behind them. - This system turn the problem of erosion into the solution of water filtration.

1.2.2.9. 11b.19 – Clearwater Dam Bled off Sandtrap [ANMTN]

1.2.2.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A clear-water dam can be bled off near the back off a sand-trap dam with a diversion drain that has a silt trap. This could also lead to a swale for a productive tree system. It will need to be fenced and planted to trees for protection. The sand-trap barrier dam can have a fitted weir with a sloping grill over a small concrete canal, leading to another clear-water dam or swale. A splash apron needs to be installed to avoid erosion. Dry river beds through folds develop very different species from one side to the other because river leaves silt on one side and erodes the other, exposing rock. The silt bank will have the most burrowing animals and can be planted to hardy shrubs. The deep silt can be planted to floodplain trees, and the rock bank should be planted to hardy trees that can grow through rock crevices.

1.2.2.10. 11b.20 – Rock Holes [VIDEO]

1.2.2.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Define rock basins and how we can increase their water harvesting BRIEF OVERVIEW Rock basins naturally occur and behave like water tanks. They are created by a scouring effect from water flows that deepen and open up holes in the rock. Salt erosion, boosted by evaporation, can do the same thing. Then, we can fill these holes with pebbles or roof them to prevent evaporation. Gutters can be installed to increase the moisture led to them, and the holes can be enlarged for added harvest. Any advantages like this equate to extending our growing systems. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Rock basins are natural water tanks created by scouring effects of water flows. - Rock holes can be protected from evaporation, given gutters, and enlarged to aid in water harvesting and storage. - These little advantages help us extend our growing systems.

1.2.3. Modules 11b.21 to 11b.30

1.2.3.1. 11b.21 – Evaporation and Evapotranspiration [VIDEO]

1.2.3.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Our design concerns in the drylands are about preventing evaporation, but we also must think about evapotranspiration. While there is more potential evaporation than rainfall, unless we have created open-air dams, there is no water to actually be evaporated. To grow crops, we need stored water or moisture stored in soil. We can also create situations where still air lowers evaporation rates, something called the oasis effect. On the other hand, the clothesline effect is produced when winds, especially hot and dry ones, take the moisture out of things quicker. To prevent the clothesline effect, we need thick windbreaks and/or trees scattered throughout fields. Carefully selected trees will require much less water than is lost to the effect, and using hardy desert legumes will help the crop. Productive fields should be no larger than 2000 square meters. In smaller home gardens, it’s possible to screen out almost all winds and provide 50% shade. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Our design concerns are about preventing evaporation, but we also must think of evapotranspiration. - The oasis effect is when still air lowers the evapotranspiration rate. The clothesline effect is when winds speed up the drying rate. - We can prevent the clothesline effect by including thick windbreaks around our fields and/or trees scattered throughout them. - Productive dryland fields should only be about 2000 square meters, so that they can remain sheltered.

1.2.3.2. 11b.22 – Conservation of Water in Transit [VIDEO]

1.2.3.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Outline the two water transit issues that cause massive losses of water - Describe qanats as an alternative to modern piping - List techniques that help minimize evaporation in open water storages - Illustrate how to tap into headwater aquifers for sweetwater - Realize the water saving effect of deep mulches BRIEF OVERVIEW Large volumes of water can be lost in transit due to evaporation and leaking. Modern piping is the most efficient way to prevent this. When that isn’t available, ancient systems called qanats can be used. Qanats start with a shaft that reaches down to spring lines of water, and they consist of several shafts from the surface that extend a gallery that moves a steady flow of water until it breaks the surface downslope. When water is at the surface, however, it must be protected from evaporation. This starts by supplying roofing and/or floating raft gardens. Windbreaks can also help with the clothesline effect. It is much preferable, then, to have several small systems that are deep and can be covered than a large system that will lose a lot of water to evaporation. Using a nearly horizontal pipe, it’s also possible to tap into headwater aquifers that will supply water at pressure. Then, with sweet water, we can create miracles in the desert because there is plenty of sun. Solar pumps and windmills can also move water up to high tanks to be gravity-fed back down. Lastly, putting ten to fifteen inches of mulch greatly reduces evaporation, sometimes reducing irrigation requirements by 90%. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Large volumes of water can be lost in transit, either via evaporation or leakage. - Qanats are ancient systems that move constant water flows to the surface via shafts and a gallery. - Water at the surface must be protected with roofs, floating gardens, and windbreaks. - Systems should be numerous and small, as opposed to large, which is more susceptible to evaporation. - Headwater aquifers are possible by installing nearly horizontal pipes. - Solar pumps and windmills can pump water to high tanks that will gravity-feed water back down. - Mulch greatly…greatly!...reduces evaporation.

1.2.3.3. 11b.23 – Structure of Dams [VIDEO]

1.2.3.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Summarize the basic shape and orientation of efficient dryland dams - Recognize the need to have trees ready for the right opportunity to establish them BRIEF OVERVIEW Dryland dams are most effective in deep conical forms with a V-shape moving back to a point of entry. They are ideally oriented east-to-west in a shaded valley, and they should be arranged in small series. When half-full, upper dams should be drained into lower dams to create one full dam rather than two half-empty ones, as this reduces evaporation. Several small series of three dams works more efficiently than a large system of twenty dams. Water can be pumped to larger header tanks to extend seasons, but it is imperative to be ready to establish more trees during good years. Trees should be ready in a nursery, and an extension site should be carefully chosen and prepared. When extended our systems, it is important to move in modest, manageable increments, establishing strong systems that will sustain. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Dams are most effective as deep conical structures with V-shaped surface areas. - They are ideally oriented east-to-west in shaded valleys. - Dams should be in small series, with lower dams kept full as opposed to higher dams being half-full. - To extend systems, we must be ready — trees in nursery, sites chosen and prepared — for good years. - Systems should be extended modestly.

1.2.3.4. 11b.24 – Three Dams in Series Reduce Evaporation [ANMTN]

1.2.3.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Three dams in a series can reduce evaporation by carefully siphoning down from one dam to the next. When the top two are half-empty, the top should be siphoned to the lower one. Then, when the bottom two are both half-empty, the higher should be siphoned into the lower. All desert dams should be conical in section and maximize depth to surface area. The surface to volume ratio increases as the water level drops, which increases evaporation. Keeping the water as deep as possible for as long as possible can reduce evaporation by up to forty percent.

1.2.3.5. 11b.25 – The Desert House [VIDEO]

1.2.3.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Identify the necessary considerations for constructing a comfortable desert dwelling - Give examples of features that can make desert homes energy-efficient - Describe the arrangement of homes and buildings in desert community BRIEF OVERVIEW Desert homes are designed similarly to those in the sub-tropics, where summers require cooling and winters warmth. The temperatures also have more drastic changes the further away from the ocean they are. There are many features that make these homes energy-efficient. There is usually a centrally located, shaded courtyard to extend the coolness of the home. Evaporation — from charcoal, hessian cloth, unglazed pots, damp bark, etc. — is used for its cooling effect. East-to-west openings tend to be narrow to control the amount of sun and shade, and north-to-south areas are wider. Massive walls store heat and cool, and all surfaces are painted mat white to reflect the sun, helping to cool and providing indirect light. Windows are small and grilled. Ventilation is designed to enhance evaporative cooling, and trellises shade everything, open spaces, walls, and roofs. Around 30% of the living space will actually be outdoors. Houses are often nestled together to share energy functions. Streets should be narrow and shaded with trees or trellises, and north-south streets should be few and far between, preventing winds from ripping through. Buildings should be multi-storied to enhance shade, and all thermal mass—streets, parking areas, homes—should be shaded. Another classic desert home feature is to have canvass awning over windows, once again creating more functional shade. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Desert house design focuses on cooling in the summer and warming in the winter. - Homes are designed to take advantage of natural cooling features: shaded courtyards, evaporation, large walls, etc. - Trellises and trees should be used to shade all thermal masses: streets, walls, roofs, parking areas, etc. - Houses are close together to shade energy functions, and buildings should be multi-storied to create more shade. - Streets should be narrow and north-south passageways minimal.

1.2.3.6. 11b.26 – Isolated and Multiple Storey Housing [ANMTN]

1.2.3.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Desert settlements require thoughtful design with connected shade elements, as well as careful attention to orientation and angles of the sun. Extensive trellised courtyards, shade trees, and shaded gardens create sources of cool air that can be drawn through living spaces. The hard surfaces of roads and footpaths can be connected to swales that will grow trees to provide shade for reducing general ground heat stress.

1.2.3.7. 11b.27 – Site Conditions [VIDEO]

1.2.3.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW More than any other climate, where we settle in deserts makes a major difference, so we have to be very careful about selecting sites. Water access is the first priority, and only five percent of the landscape has good runoff. Settlements should also be at least 20 meters above the lowest plains so that they are out of the frost zones. Water catchments need to be near housing, and groundwater should only be a back up source of water. Options for underground housing, caves or earth-covered shelters, should be explored. Flat, parapet roof areas can extend production, helps to cool the house, and offer space for water storage. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Where we settle in deserts makes a major difference. - Water access is first priority and only five percent of the landscape has the right runoff. - Settlements should be 20 meters over the lowest plains. - Water catchments should be near houses and groundwater left as an emergency water source. - Underground housing is a great, efficient option. - Flat, parapet roofs can be used for gardens, cooling, and water storage.

1.2.3.8. 11b.28 – Underground and Earth Sheltered [VIDEO]

1.2.3.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Underground homes can be easily carved out of soft rock with modern mining equipment. Sites ideally will have hard cap rock surfaces above them, but this can be done with concrete. Ventilation and light shafts are very important. Compost toilets can be installed near the doors. Walls can be cut and smoothed by hand, leaving channels to run electricity and plumbing. Water tanks can be carved into the house from above and piped down, and wastewater can be piped through the front to reed beds that led to gardens. Solar panels and solar-heated water tanks can be installed on the “roof”. The front entrance can have a glasshouse in front of it, which can be shaded in the summer and used as a heat pump in the winter. Hot caves can be created by using upslope features with overhanging entrances to catch rising heat, and these make great dry storages. Cold caves can be created by carving into dips to catch falling air, and these make wonderful food storage areas. Living spaces are generally level, and these homes require very little maintenance and last for a very long time. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Underground homes can be easily carved out of soft rock with modern mining equipment. - Homes need ventilation and light shafts. - Water tanks can be carved out from above, and wastewater can be piped out of the front to gardens. - Solar panels and solar water heaters can be installed on the roof. - Glasshouses work well at the entrance, shading heat in the summer and creating a heat pump in winter. - Hot caves catch heat coming up and make great dry storages. - Cold caves harvest falling, cool air for great food storages. - These living spaces are low-maintenance and long-lasting.

1.2.3.9. 11b.29 – Large Shallow Leach Fields [ANMTN]

1.2.3.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Where enough water is available, low-flush toilets can let water into soakage beds where trees can rapidly take up nutrients and transpire water. A pit that is five meters by five meters by half a meter deep is filled with boulders on the bottom, small rocks, and gravel on top. Cardboard or layers of newspaper covered with straw over the pit will soak up nitrates and ammonias. Large trees must surround it to function efficiently.

1.2.3.10. 11b.30 – Forestieri House [ANMTN]

1.2.3.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The Forestiere House in Fresno, California, is a famous example of underground housing, with bedrooms, bathrooms, kitchen, lounges and so on. There are many fruit trees and vine crops in courtyards, with only their crowns visible at the earth’s surface. The temperature is constant, with very little variation throughout the year. Good ventilation is necessary for the removal of naturally occurring radon gas. Mark As Complete

1.2.4. Modules 11b.31 to 11b.40

1.2.4.1. 11b.31 – Cave Houses [ANMTN]

1.2.4.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Cave houses in Coober Pedy, Australia, are built with a bench cut entry on the shade side of a hill. Mining machinery is used to excavate intricate designs. Light shafts with reflectors are used to illuminate rooms, and solar chimneys vent heat, steam, and gases. Façades are built on to the house faces and equipped with vine trellises. Temperatures are a constant twenty-five degrees Centigrade. Mark As Complete

1.2.4.2. 11b.32 – Caves with Cool or Warm Air Supply [ANMTN]

1.2.4.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Caves can store cool or warm air by design. Warm air rising into a cave can be trapped using high internal roof space, and the cave can be used for dry storage. A glass entrance facing the sun can increase the warm air function. Cold night air falls into a cave with a low internal floor space. A trellised entry on the shade side with a sill to prevent water entry and solar chimney for keep cold air in help to make this into a cold storage. Cave houses are generally horizontal and can have both of these. Mark As Complete

1.2.4.3. 11b.33 – Earth Sheltered Housing [VIDEO]

1.2.4.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Summarize the construction of an earth-sheltered house to create cave conditions BRIEF OVERVIEW We can imitate the conditions of a cave by using concrete walls and roofing with earth piled up to the eaves and over the roof. With good clay soil, bulldozers and earth-moving equipment can quickly consolidate the materials necessary. Another simple option is to build a turkey nest dam and put a roof over it. This will be a cool, solid, flood-proof, fire-proof home, and it can be sealed inside with thin gabion walls that have been rendered. This makes a fast, cheap, and highly efficient house. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Earth-sheltered housing imitates the conditions of caves. - We can build turkey nest dams and roof them for sturdy, cheap, and highly efficient homes.

1.2.4.4. 11b.34 – Earth Sheltered Surface Housing [ANMTN]

1.2.4.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Earth-sheltered surface houses work well in deserts where caves aren’t possible. Concrete walls and roofs will support earth banks and an earth roof, duplicating cave conditions with no risk of flooding. Deciduous vines can shelter sun-facing walls in summer and open them up to sun in winter. Light shafts open the rooms to sun, and solar chimneys keep it ventilated.

1.2.4.5. 11b.35 – Surface Housing [VIDEO]

1.2.4.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain where and how surface housing sites can be prepared - Give examples of ways to easily cool surface housing - Give examples of methods for efficiently heating surface housing BRIEF OVERVIEW Surface housing in the desert can be in excavated or hill-steeped slopes, compacted by bulldozers, and they’ll outperform mud bricks. The earth works can be installed to drain water away from the roof, and interior walls can be constructed. In unstable lands or lands that flood, it’s best to be above the ground, and another thing, especially in granite or volcanic rock, one should always test for radon before living underground. Houses built into a hill are easy to cool. A shaded, cold source can be created on the earth’s surface with a cold-air tunnel, 20 meters long and at least a meter deep, leading into the house. Where the air enters the house, evaporation features can further the cooling effects. Another option is putting a rooftop feature that forces breezes down into the house and over the evaporation features. Solar chimneys can help to pull hot air out of the house and circulate the cooler air. Internal courtyards and trellises also add to the cooling effort. Heating is also available through design. There should be an outdoor shade house kitchen for the summer, but winter kitchens can be inside to help with heating. Thermal mass walls can also be constructed at windows to absorb daytime sun and heat the home. Glasshouses can be attached to the house for added heat in the winter, and they can also work as cool air draws in the summer. Seedlings can be started early in the spring, autumn crops can be ripened later, and winter greens can be grown in the glasshouse. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Surface housing in the desert can be on excavated or hill-stepped slopes, outlasting mud bricks. - Underground housing isn’t viable where lands are unstable, flood, or have radon. - Houses can be cooled with cold-air tunnels, evaporation features, forced air streams, internal courtyards, and solar chimneys. - Houses can be warmed with indoor winter kitchens, thermal mass walls near windows, and attached glasshouses.

1.2.4.6. 11b.36 – Hill Stepped Houses Compacted by Bulldozer [ANMTN]

1.2.4.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Where soils have sufficient clay content, a bulldozer can quickly build a turkey nest dam that can be left open on the sun side. When roofed, it works as a cool desert house, safe from flooding. They can outperform all other forms of aboveground earth houses in cost, energy efficiency performance, and durability.

1.2.4.7. 11b.37 – Cool Air Tunnel [ANMTN]

1.2.4.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Earth tunnels are great cooling devices for desert homes. They must be a minimum meter deep and twenty meters long. They should ideally slope downwards from a shaded air intake. Large unglazed pots, pans of water, wet charcoal trays, or drip-fed hessian cloth provide evaporative cooling.

1.2.4.8. 11b.38 – Placement of Vegetation Around Dryland Houses [VIDEO]

1.2.4.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Arrange the vegetation around a desert home to maximize efficiency BRIEF OVERVIEW The placement of vegetation around desert housing is crucial. The western wall should be completely shaded at all times, requiring evergreen trees and vines, to cut afternoon heat gain. The eastern side can have deciduous trees and vines, blocking the sun in warmer times and allowing some sun in in the winter. Houses should be elongated, running east to west, and allow winter sun into all rooms but no summer sun, so trellised, deciduous vines work great here. All of this makes a huge savings on energy, and it’s all accomplished by thoughtful design with vegetation. KEY TAKEAWAYS - The placement of vegetation around a desert house makes huge energy-saving difference. - Evergreen trees and vines should shade the western wall at all times, preventing afternoon heat gain. - Deciduous trees and vines on the eastern side can block summer sun but allow some winter sun in. - The house should be long, stretched east-to-west, to allow winter sun in but block summer sun with deciduous vine trellises. - Shutters should be outside, not inside, with lattice or slats to allow air to move through.

1.2.4.9. 11b.39 – Correct Placement of Systems Around the House [ANMTN]

1.2.4.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Good placement of systems around a desert house maximizes efficiency and lowers running cost. No windows should be on the western walls, and they should be covered with evergreen trellis crop. A cool air tunnel and paved shade house with an outdoor kitchen and extended trellis on the shade side also provide sources of cool air. A water tank should be under the trellis. External blinds will prevent heat before it enters the house, and solar chimneys will cycle hot air out of the house. A paved trellis over the sun-side of the house can have crop leading to a garden-edge, earth-bank swale, and deciduous and palm trees can be planted on the sun side of the house. The main kitchen garden should be on the sun side with a deciduous vine trellis above it. House grey water can pass through a grass trap and reed bed and be fed to kitchen gardens. Swale orchards with main crop garden inter-swales are positioned directly above the house garden, with diversion drains helping to maximize garden soakage, increasing hydration. If near a wadi, check dams can be installed with diversion drains to increase hydration to the house garden area, and opportunistic crops can be planted in the wadi silt fields after flood events.

1.2.4.10. 11b.40 – Home Energy Conservation [VIDEO]

1.2.4.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List simple methods for creating an energy-efficient desert home BRIEF OVERVIEW Home energy conservation is easy to achieve in the desert. Hot water can be supplied by solar hot water panels or black tubing on the roof. Evacuated hot water pipes, another option, can also supply water hot enough to cut down on the energy required for boiling water to cook. Solar electricity is easy to produce because there is an abundance of sun. Wastewater can be fed through reed beds and used to grow firewood, and a rocket stove can use that firewood very efficiently. Once established, almost all energy needs are the supplied for virtually no cost. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Home energy is easy and inexpensive in the desert. - Hot water can come from solar hot water panels, black tubing on the roof, or evacuated hot water pipes. - Solar electricity is easy to manage because there is so much sun. - Wastewater can go to growing firewood, which can be used efficiently to run a rocket stove for cooking.

1.2.5. Modules 11b.41 to 11b.50

1.2.5.1. 11b.41 – House Water Conservation [VIDEO]

1.2.5.1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Outline a plan for conserving water in and around a desert house BRIEF OVERVIEW Home water conservation is obviously a must in the desert. Showers should be used minimally, and the showerheads in them should be minimum-flow heads. Wastewater should be used to either grow gardens or firewood, letting none of it escape. Waterless compost toilets will eliminate using water in toilets. Roof water, no matter how spare, should be caught in tanks on the shade side of the house, and the tanks should either be underground or shade trellised. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Water conservation is hugely important in the desert. - Showers should be minimally used and have low-flow showerheads. - Wastewater should be used grow gardens or produce firewood. - Toilets should be dry composting toilets. Roof water should be caught in tanks that are kept out of the sun.

1.2.5.2. 11b.42 – The Desert Garden [VIDEO]

1.2.5.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Contrast concerns in the desert garden with those in a garden elsewhere - Provide solutions for the challenges faced in a desert garden - Describe where to locate and how to manage a desert garden BRIEF OVERVIEW Desert gardens are different from gardens in other climates. Growers must be careful about soluble elements. Soils tend to have extreme pH levels, usually leaning to alkaline. Water use must be very carefully monitored, and there is a need for lots of shade for the garden. Wild and domestic animals will be a huge issue. The low level of resources will result in low levels of nutrition, so gardens must also be abundant. There are solutions for most issues. Protection for the garden can be supplied quickly with earth banks and fencing, Shade needs to average about 75%, and this is supplied by lots and lots of vine trellises. Soil has to be tested for deficiencies, particularly in zinc, phosphorus, iron and manganese, but it must also be checked for excess boron, nitrates, and fluorine. Salt content can’t be ignored, and rain runoff can help to flush away the salts. Garden crops should be carefully selected to be self-shading, deep-rooted, and hardy, while trees need to be drought-tolerant and hardy, like olives, pomegranate, palms, mulberry, and others. Gardens and houses should be near runoff areas. Vegetables should be under shade with trellises almost all the way around the garden. Wastewater soaks can move through reed beds into flood beds for crops. Everything should receive deep mulches. Peas and beans have to be a constant in the crop rotations to add fertility. Normal companion planting with hardy flowers is still a part of the garden. Every wall and roof should support a trellis. In outer areas, it’s useful to look for corridors of naturally sandy areas, which will soak in water. Any soak area, especially one with shade, can be used as a niche garden and planted to hardy, fruit species. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Desert gardens are very different from those in other climates. - Special consideration must be given to soluble elements, pH levels, water use, shade, and animals. - Crops and trees have to be carefully selected so that they can withstand dryland conditions. - Trellises and vining crops play a major role in shading the garden and should be present on all walls and roofs. - In the outer areas, corridors of sandy soil signify water soak areas and potential for growing niche crops.

1.2.5.3. 11b.43 – Matching Up Earth Bed, Irrigation, Soil, and Plant Species [VIDEO]

1.2.5.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List important elements to include in garden plans - Arrange the kitchen garden for a desert home, noting which crops to favor - Relate the basic approaches to cultivating perennial and annual crops BRIEF OVERVIEW Gardens provide physical exercise, mental health, food for the family, and possibly cash. Beds should be planned with companion planting and seasonal succession. Plans for water should include mulch pits with ledges, circle gardens around leaky pots, flood beds, mulch baskets, and other water conserving techniques. These techniques will all work if approached with discipline and regularity. Cultivating plants requires special attention. Perennials and trees are best kept in the shade and in pots, waiting for the ideal time — after rain — to plant out. Trees should be planted in a soaked hole, topped with plenty of mulch, and shaded, with a preliminary pH check. Seedlings need to be planted in cool times, like evenings, with shade and wind protection. Tubers and bulbs can simply be pushed into mulch. Seeds can be scattered over sieved compost, covered with hessian cloth and watered, and the hessian cloth can then be removed after the seeds have germinated. Lenses of fine soil atop thick mulches are good for fine seeds, such as carrots. Gardens can be instant, but the soil isn’t at its best until a few years later. Three to six beds, roughly a meter wide and four meters long, can be rotated. Plantings should be grouped like families, with special favor shown to salt-tolerant plants like onions and tomatoes and special attention shown to less tolerant plants like peppers. Gladiolas, marigolds, and crotalarias are great companion plants for repelling insects and providing wind protection. Staple crops for a family can be grown in spaces of 20 to 30 square meters, and gardens should be small and shaded with trellised vine crops. Beds can be raised with sunken tops, and both greywater and rainwater runoff need to be taken full advantage of, with no sprinklers but all subsurface irrigation. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Gardens supply physical exercise, mental health, food for the family, and potentially cash. - Beds should be planned with companion planting and seasonal successions. - Water has to be planned for, using both greywater and rainwater runoff in sub-surface irrigation. - Cultivating plants requires special attention and particular techniques for different species.

1.2.5.4. 11b.44 – Earthshaping within Gardens [ANMTN]

1.2.5.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW There are many types of earth-shaping for desert gardens. Mulch pits of 30 centimeters deep and sixty centimeters across with the excavated soil around the sides can be filled with good compost and mulch at the bottom and used to plant trees. A mulch hole that is 60 centimeters wide and 80 centimeters deep is lined with a thick layer of paper, cardboard, or leaves at the bottom and filled with household waste, wool, ashes, and even metal waste, and the excavated dirt forms a ring around the hole with vegetables planted just on the inside of the mound. North-south ridges can be planted at the sides for shading seedlings, and the footpaths between them should be mulched heavily. Mulch baskets, two to three meters across, work for preserving hydration, and boxes of mulch over alkaline sands with drip lines do the same. Broad flood bays about three meters across can grow crops like carrots, or top-watered raised beds can work for areas with salty water supply.

1.2.5.5. 11b.45 – Plants in Difficult Soils [ANMTN]

1.2.5.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW There are different treatments for planting in difficult soils. Cowcrete, or platin, layers need to be cracked up and the holes filled with humus and organic waste before planting trees low enough to get its roots into damp sands. Cracking clay soils can be filled with sand and gypsum dust before planting. Alkaline sands can receive retention gels, seaweed, bentonite, sulfur, and minerals, and seedlings can be planted in biodegradable pots to adjust as they grow. Deep sands should be layered with plastic, thick cardboard, or very thick leaves, as well as being amended with retention gels, seaweed, nutrients, and bentonite and seedlings started in biodegradable pots. Hard shale can be shattered, the holes filled with soil and compost before planting. Hard pans can be ripped to half a meter deep to create tree lines and improve water infiltration.

1.2.5.6. 11b.46 – Keyhole Bed [ANMTN]

1.2.5.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Keyhole beds have a one-meter wide circle footpath with a half-meter wide entry path, and the planting beds are one to two meters across with a windbreak around the outside. A tomato polyculture keyhole can be inter-planted with marigolds and dwarf nasturtiums, with chives at the entrance and basil surrounding the inner circle. Fava beans can be planted as a winter harvest or green manure between the tomatoes. The area should be wind-sheltered and covered in thick mulch.

1.2.5.7. 11b.47 – Staple Foods [VIDEO]

1.2.5.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Define staple foods and contrast them with other crops - Identify plants appropriate for mulching and creating humus in the desert - Describe an effective method for cultivating fruit trees - Recognize why it is that people in the desert won’t readily change their methods BRIEF OVERVIEW Staple foods are those that make up 50-plus percent of our diet when in season. A good home garden can easily supply 20 types of vegetables, six to nine different fruits, and three to six meats, but there are generally only two to four staple foods. Intensive grazing from industry has destroyed most of the useful vegetation (and potentially domesticated local animals) from the desert, but our systems need to focus on readying the best selected seeds, tubers, and roots for next season, looking ahead for our food supply. Mulch and humus production is integral to success in the desert setting. Nitrogen can come from edible tree legumes and plant legumes, whereas carbon mulch is produced well with edge barrier species, like clumping grasses. Plants with a high gel factor, such as the ice plant, can have edible parts, provide insulation for the ground, and catch wind-blown organic matter and soils to enhance the humus. Fruit trees should have interplants, as well as ground covers. The interplants can be coppiced or pollarded just before cooler seasons so that they provide shade in the heat and rich humus production in cooler times. High shade from thin-leafed legumes and palms provide a natural shade house, and the humus production from the trees is very rich. Using wastewater to get these systems moving will also greatly speed up the situation. People won’t easily change in the desert because the stakes are so high. If something goes wrong, the results are dire, so we have to trial crops, demonstrating how to use them in the system, how to grow them, and how to eat them. We also must establish the benefits of creating soil humus and utilizing wastewater when creating gardens. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Staple crops make over half of our diet when they are in season, and there are usually only two to four staple varieties. - Mulch and humus production are crucial to establishing desert gardens. - Fruit trees should be inter-planted with high shade coming from thin-leafed legumes and palms, as well as ground covers. - Utilizing wastewater greatly enhances the production of desert gardens. - People in the desert don’t easily change what they do, so it is necessary to demonstrate new trees and plants.

1.2.5.8. 11b.48 – Vines [VIDEO]

1.2.5.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List the different functions that vines perform in desert gardens - Outline how vines are prescribed over and around desert gardens - Arrange vines to make a desert house more comfortable BRIEF OVERVIEW Vines play a bigger role in desert gardens than in any other climate. They are food, climate control, and water extension, and different types of vines — deciduous, evergreen, gel — have roles to play. Over gardens, spaced one to two meters apart, deciduous vines should supply about 50% shade. Along the easterly side of gardens, deciduous vines, spaced to give about 30% shade, will extend nighttime moisture. On the western edge of the garden, dense evergreen vines should be designed to block about 75% of the intense afternoon sun. Along the sun side of the garden, crop vines should grow to provide about 20% shade. The shade side of the garden doesn’t require a feature. The same thing can be done with houses. Vines can be grown beyond the window shades, stretching from the rooftop out to the edge of a veranda. They can be trellised from building to building or from buildings to perimeter walls, providing shade for the streets and creating an oasis effect. There are lots of fast-growing vines, and they can be watered with the wastewater from cleaning our spaces. These vines can produce mulch (and sticks for rocket stoves), and the humus and water will make the system boom. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Vines play are larger role in desert than in any other climate. - Gardens should be shaded with vines: deciduous vines provide 50% shade from above and 30% shade on the east, evergreen blocks out 75% of the sun on the west, and crop vines give 20% shade from the sun side. - Houses, too, can use vines to shade all sides, creating a cool oasis effect.

1.2.5.9. 11b.49 – Plan of Vines Over Garden [ANMTN]

1.2.5.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Main kitchen gardens need to be covered in trellis, with only 50% light permeating in from the east and only five to ten percent from the west, both ends of the bed blocked with pole crops. Deciduous fruiting vines can be grown as a roof, and palms can provide more shade. A sunken plastic liner with a one-meter retaining border on the outside will help retain moisture, and deeply mulched footpaths are also great in this regard.

1.2.5.10. 11b.50 – Fencing [VIDEO]

1.2.5.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Identify the need for fencing and the cheapest options available - Realize the natural options for constructing fences BRIEF OVERVIEW Fences need to be designed well to keep wild and domesticated animals out of our lush systems, which will look very attractive in arid landscapes. The most fencing required will likely be for extended areas used for milk and draft animals, and electric fencing is the cheapest option if it is available. Natural fencing solutions do exist. It’s possible to start with a thorny hedge of dead plants that protect a new, living hedge as it establishes itself. Cacti, such as the prickly pear, can provide living, productive hedges. Ha ha fences are possible but should have at least one side stone-faced, and a thorny hedge on the garden side will help to make a much higher fence. Even a large guard dog is worth the cost of feeding it. When an area is fenced from local stock animals, many plants will appear, and the soils will grow, especially along the fencing. Key Takeaways Fences need to be designed well to keep out both wild and domestic animals. Extended areas for milk and draft animals will require the most fencing. Electric fencing is the cheapest option, but there are natural alternatives, like thorny hedges and ha ha fences. Fenced areas will enable many new plants to naturally establish and help to collect new soils. Mark As Complete

1.2.6. Modules 11b.51 to 11b.55

1.2.6.1. 11b.51 – Desert Soils [VIDEO]

1.2.6.1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Give examples of challenges and solutions with desert soils - Explain how nitrates build up, how nutrients are used up, and how to prevent both BRIEF OVERVIEW We have to be very careful with desert soils. Heat and moisture decompose humus to produce too many nitrates, which will kill young plants. Soils need a thick top mulch, up to 45 centimeters atop new tree roots. Fire and plowing will use up nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus, and in turn, this will extend desert margins. Instead, after rains, grasses can be slashed or rolled and left on the ground. There are many variations of soil treatment for the desert. In free-draining or non-wetting sands, bentonite will help them begin to hold moisture. With sealed clays, gypsum will help to open them up to absorbing water. Salted soils (or water) require raised mounds that can be flooded but drained, and these will provide the chance to create organic matter and start moving out of the salted situation. Swales can be used as tracks, filled with sand or gravel, to produce more organic matter. In extremely salted situation, the topsoil may have to be removed then replaced with good topsoil, and the gardens will have to have deep drainage across them to keep the new topsoil from becoming salted. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Soils require special care in the desert, watching out for too many nitrates and avoiding plowing and burning. - Soil treatments include bentonite for problematic sands, gypsum for sealed clays, and flooded raised beds for salted soils. - In extremely salted soils, the topsoil may have to be replaced, and the new gardens will require deep drainage to avoid salting over again.

1.2.6.2. 11b.52 – Desalting of Soils in Gardens [ANMTN]

1.2.6.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Gardens can be de-salted. It starts by removing all soil down to possibly two meters deep. Roughly fifteen centimeters of shingle should be added at the bottom. New topsoil has to be brought in to go atop the shingle, and drains should be installed (one to 1.5 meters across, two meters deep) that reach below the shale. If shingle is not available, soil can be removed to 40 centimeters and new sandy soil brought in, and the same deep drains installed. The drains should cross over the middle of the bed and drain into wells downslope. The beds should be flushed regularly with low-salinity water.

1.2.6.3. 11b.53 – Desert Mulches [VIDEO]

1.2.6.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Mulches everywhere are valuable, but they are particularly so in the deserts. They can come from many sources. Flood-collected and wind-swept mulches provide a great diversity of organic matter. Mulch crops can be grown specifically for mulch pruning. Household solid wastes, even things like ashes, bones, cardboard, blankets, wool, coffee grounds and so on, can make great mulches. Of course, crops waste and weeds can be used as well. As a rule, if it has lived, then it can live again (by nurturing the soil). In deserts, mulches can be combined with many other useful functions. Lowering pH levels is possible with mildly acidic mulches, like coffee grounds or pine needles. Up to 30% of the garden area should be devoted to windbreaks, which can supply both crops and mulch material. After rains, there is good grass production, which can be harvested for mulch, reducing the risk of wildfires. Fires in growing areas, in fact, should be stopped completely and grazing must be regulated for the sake of mulch production. Then, mulches will keep fertility within our systems. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Mulches are important in any garden but particularly in desert gardens. - Sources of mulch are huge and varied: flood-harvested, wind-swept, manure-d, and household waste materials all make great mulches. - As an element of multi-functional design, mulches can also be created from other systematic functions, like windbreaks, shading elements, and crop waste.

1.2.6.4. 11b.54 – Mulched Garden Beds [ANMTN]

1.2.6.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Deep-mulch gardens, 18-20 centimeters, preserve waters and produce rich humus. Paper, cardboard, surplus sod, woolen rugs, carpets, and cotton cloth make good sheet mulch on the soil surface. The sheet mulch should be sprinkled with compost or aged manure. The top mulch can be straw, leaves, detritus, weeds, prunings, kitchen scraps, bones, ashes, seaweed, pine needles, woodchips, and/or manures. Advance plantings and tree seedlings can be planted before the sheet mulch, and mulch can be added around them, staying off the stem. Stones can weigh down mulches. Seedlings can be planted in compost pockets. Tubers can be planted in holes just below the sheet mulch or just on top. Fine seeds can be sprinkled onto soil lenses (two to three centimeters deep) above high quality mulch mixed with manure.

1.2.6.5. 11b.55 – Food and Shelter for Harvested Wildlife, Crop [ANMTN]

1.2.6.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Swales at 70 to 100 meters apart can grow tree legumes for animal fodder, and hardy trees that can be regularly cut for mulch for crops in the swales. Grasses and grains can be grown on ripped soils in the inter-swales. Surplus mulch can be fed into the swale system. The whole things is designed to oversupply mulch.

1.3. Module 11c

1.3.1. Modules 11c.1 to 11c.10

1.3.1.1. 11c.1 – Chapter 11 Course Notes; Part Three [PDF]

1.3.1.1.1. Irrigation System and Strategies In the desert, reducing the clothesline effect with windbreaks is the first priority in creating an irrigation system, and using drip irrigation is the most efficient way of delivering water. Windbreaks not only buffer winds from drying out the soil, but the vegetation also adds humidity to areas immediately surrounding them. Drip irrigation can then be set up on timers, a common technology, to deliver specific amounts of water to different garden beds, which can separately have plants with varied water needs. Other efficient means of irrigating include using reed beds to clean greywater on its way to wicking beds, burying unglazed pots with gardens around them, sinking pipes to deliver water at the root level (underground), inverting leaky bottles next to plants, and installing pebble-filled tubes to deliver water while protecting it from the sun. Efficient irrigation centers around minimizing wind and evaporation. Continued...

1.3.1.2. 11c.2 – Garden Irrigation Systems [VIDEO]

1.3.1.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Drip irrigation is, no doubt, the most efficient way to irrigate. Trees and plants can get exactly what they need where and when they need it. Then, the most efficient design element for aiding irrigation is the windbreak, which buffers the wind, stopping the clothesline effect, and increases generally humidity in an area. In fact, before calculating what is needed via irrigation, it’s best to minimize the amount needed with sensible design. Trees and plants all require different amounts of water according to their specie and age. It’s hard for one system to adjust for all of this, but timers are available and can water in exact amounts in exact spaces. There are even moisture and rain sensors that can prevent watering when it isn’t necessary. The systems will quickly pay for themselves in time saved and increased production. Ultimately, once the plants are established, this technology will be relied on less and less. There are other efficient methods for irrigating. Greywater from sinks and showers can be cleaned by moving it through a reed bed, and it can flow on to water a series of wicking beds. Unglazed pots can leak into gardens built around them. Sunken pipes can deliver water to trees at the root level. Leaky, inverted bottles with holes in the caps can drip right next to trees or plants. Pebble-filled tubes can move water to the ground, all the while protecting it from sunlight. The key to efficient irrigation is reducing the wind and evaporation. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Drip irrigation is the most efficient method, and wind breaks are the most beneficial design element for watering plants. - Trees and plants all require different amounts of water according to their age and specie. - Timers are available that can deliver exact amounts of water to exact places. - Other efficient irrigation methods include unglazed pots, sunken pipes, leaky inverted bottles, and pebble-filled tubes. - Reducing the wind and evaporation is the first objective in creating efficient irrigation systems.

1.3.1.3. 11c.3 – Subsurface Irrigation Systems [VIDEO]

1.3.1.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Subsurface irrigation either drips or seeps water below the surface. We can start by using this to create our windbreaks. Reed beds (one square meter of surface area per person) can be set up to collect domestic water, clean the suspended nutrients from it, and distribute it through a movable output, such as a hose. Swales are the the best example of subsurface seepage, as they put hundreds of liters of water beneath the soil. Seepage pipes, with some maintenance, can also do this, as can drip-irrigation to buried vertical pipes with gravel at their bottoms. Homemade systems can be made out pipes with cloth-covered slats cut into them and/or stretched plastic sheeting curved into a half-pipe about 60 centimeters wide buried 30-40 centimeters below the surface. Greywater can be fed through these systems to grow fruit and leaf crops. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Subsurface irrigation either drips and seeps below the surface. - Reed beds should measure one square meter per person and can collect, clean, and distribute domestic water. - Examples of subsurface irrigation include swales, seepage pipes, and buried plastic sheeting.

1.3.1.4. 11c.4 – Micropore and Seepage Lines [ANMTN]

1.3.1.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Main-crops, raised-bed gardens should have drip-line irrigation, furrows and ridges on contour, and half-a-meter-deep mulched footpaths. The mulched footpaths can be added to the ridges after a growing season. The footpaths are refilled with each new planting.

1.3.1.5. 11c.5 – Trickle Irrigation [ANMTN]

1.3.1.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Drip irrigation can be directed to pebble-filled clay pipes to allow water to wet soils below fifteen centimeters. The pipes should be ten to fifteen centimeters wide, 30 to 40 deep, and open at both ends. Liquid, organic fertilizer can also be applied through the pipe.

1.3.1.6. 11c.6 – Domestic Waste Water Channels [ANMTN]

1.3.1.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Waste water can be drained into a pipe buried 40 centimeters deep and cut at 40-centimeter intervals with screen wrapped around the holes to allow water to seep out at root level. In deep sands, a plastic-lined trench can help.

1.3.1.7. 11c.7 – Arbor System [ANMTN]

1.3.1.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW An arbor system can be grow productive trees for a septic tank leach field, but it’s important tree roots don’t clog the pipes. Half-pipes of 30-50 centimeters in diameter can have two slotted flow pipes inside, which are surrounded by gravel. Then, tree roots that enter the half-pipe are naturally air-pruned.

1.3.1.8. 11c.8 – Condensation Strategies [VIDEO]

1.3.1.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List different strategies for taking advantage of condensation drip in the desert BRIEF OVERVIEW There are many ways to take advantage of condensation. Plastic shields around trees will supply shelter, but they can also be filled with weeds and organic matter, which will help to create condensation. Stone mulches will shade the root zone but also provide condensation drip, as well as housing for and manure from little animals. Vertical sheeting beneath the surface can be used with high value crops, preventing water from seeping away from the root zone. Deep mulches and pit mulches around trees help to retain water, and in both cases, the mulch itself produces its own condensation. In extreme circumstance, survival pits can be created, with a sheet of plastic weighted around the edges and the center sunken to funnel condensation water to root level. KEY TAKEAWAYS - In the desert, it’s important to take advantage of condensation. - Condensation can be collected with plastic shields, stone mulches, vertical sheeting, deep mulches, and survival pits.

1.3.1.9. 11c.9 – Desert Settlement - Broad Strategies [VIDEO]

1.3.1.9.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Establish water as the limiting factor of desert settlements - Identify where settlements should be located and what the basic requirements are BRIEF OVERVIEW The limiting factor of desert settlements is the management and availability of water. Most settlements destroy themselves via the overuse and polluting of waters, as well as the overuse of forests for firewood and fodder. Over-expansion — not limiting growth — is another huge issue. Along with managing pastoral animals, which can horribly damage system, all of these things must be considered carefully for sustainable settlements. Firewood, windbreaks, and basic foods need to be guaranteed for systems to be stable, and these can become possible with good settlement placement, near water or where water can be influenced. Generally, the foothills, with runoff coming from upslope, is a viable position. Then, once these things are established, system designs can favor wood and water while discouraging dust and heat. We must design for worst case scenarios and resist expansion in the better years. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Water management and availability are the limiting factor of desert settlements. - Most settlements destroy themselves via overusing and polluting water, as well as forests. - Over-expansion is also a major issue for desert settlements, so populations must be limited. - Settlements have to have firewood, windbreaks, and basic staples guaranteed. - Placement is crucial, the foothills, where water runoff comes for upslope, is ideal. - We have to design for the worst scenarios and avoid expanding when times are good.

1.3.1.10. 11c.10 – Dust in Settlements [VIDEO]

1.3.1.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize the conditions that are most likely to cause dust storms - Explain how settlements can prevent dust storms BRIEF OVERVIEW Dust storms need to be excluded from settlements. They usually happen around summer, in mid-to-late afternoon, in front of a thunderstorm. Soils that are plowed, unstable, bare, or overly compacted can go up in the air easily, and they’ll begin to form dust devils across the landscape. In these circumstances, many things—herds of animals, a tractor, a passing car, a pocket of hot air—can kick off a storm, and the dust itself will continually heat the air, not stopping until nightfall. Settlements can help to prevent dust storms with specific considerations. Roads should be sealed along wind lines, and dirt roads should only be across the wind. Fences and windbreaks are necessary fixtures. Landscapes, especially downwind, should be pitted and vegetated. Useful trees should be planted in lines and grown on town wastewater. This is very important, as aside from the physical issue, dust can cause serious health problems, like asthma, eye and lung infections, sinus issues, and the spread of human pathogens. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Dust storms usually occur during the summer, after three in the afternoon, just in front of thunderstorms. - Plowed, unstable, bare, heated, and overly compacted soils all go up in the air easily. - Dust storms can be triggered by herds of animals, a tractor or car passing, or hot air pockets. - Settlements need to take precautions to prevent and exclude dust storms. - Dust can cause serious health issues.

1.3.2. Modules 11c.11 to 11c.20

1.3.2.1. 11c.11 – Hedges and Windbreaks [VIDEO]

1.3.2.1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Examine the many functions hedges and windbreaks can perform in desert settlements BRIEF OVERVIEW Hedges and windbreaks are an integral part of desert semblances, and they can be grown on wastewater or swales. They provide many services and products, including fodder for small animals, shelter for crops, actual crops, root barriers from invasive plants, and mulch. Crops can use their drip lines for moisture, and because they are often spiky and hostile, they make great animal barriers. Vines will also grow up them as if trellises. Trees also moderate groundwater, and with enough, they are beneficial to the broader area. Planted on contour, in protected zones, they make life much more comfortable in desert settlements. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Hedges and windbreaks are integral to desert settlements. - They can be grown on wastewater or swales. - They provide products, like crops, fodder, and mulch. - They perform additional functions, like shelter, root barriers, drip lines, and animal barriers. - Hedges and settlements are vital for making desert climates comfortable to live in.

1.3.2.2. 11c.12 – Williams Description of North African Polycultures [ANMTN]

1.3.2.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Date palm over-story food forests can have thirteen-plus fruit trees in the understory, as well as small main gardens as partly shaded crop fields.

1.3.2.3. 11c.13 – Planting and Vegetation in Settlements [VIDEO]

1.3.2.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Summarize the types of plants and vegetation well-suited to desert systems - Describe the tree belts around desert settlements, including their various functions - Realize potential uses for coppicing systems within the tree belt BRIEF OVERVIEW The plants for desert systems are very specific and well adapted to the climate. We should concentrate on things have at least two functions, often food and shade. Perennials, as well as local varieties, are where much of the focus should be. And, there should be plenty of vine trellises. Lawns use far too much water, but it is possible to use drought-resistant, carpeting plants in small spaces. Ideally, trees should be hardy enough to survive on swales with little to no maintenance, and a belt of forest 300-400 meters wide should encircle in the settlement. These trees can also be used for fuel, mulch, forage, and supplements. Fruit trees should also be connected to swale systems, as well as hard surface runoff areas for extra irrigation. Outside tree belts, landscapes should be pitted to reforest itself. Fuel wood can be grown off of wastewater, and the trees can be coppiced in cycles of four-to-six years, with the leaves being fermented for extra fuel from a bio-digester. Beyond these systems, animals can be grazed on long, six-to-nine year rotations, using a low number of high quality stock on large pieces of land. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Plant selection in the desert is very specific, focused on multi-function, hardy perennials. - There should be plenty of vine trellises. Settlements should be surrounded by a 300-to-400-meter-thick tree system that can both provide protection and products, like fuel wood and mulch. - Beyond the settlement’s tree belt, low numbers of quality stock animals can be grazed on large areas of land, using a six-to-nine-year cycle.

1.3.2.4. 11c.14 – Fields in Drylands [ANMTN]

1.3.2.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Field crops in dry land need both windbreaks and inter-crop shade and should be planted on long, narrow inter-swale fields. The contour swales should be as little as 20 meters apart in extreme deserts and up to 80 meters apart in cooler deserts. Crop residue and clipped brush should be added to the swales with sulfur and gypsum in clay soils or bentonite in sand soils. Palms, presopis, leucaena, and cauarina with shrubs underneath them and native regrowth on the sides make for a stable system.

1.3.2.5. 11c.15 – Settlement Layout [ANMTN]

1.3.2.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Dry land settlements need careful designs to be sustainable. Swales need to be integrated as water soaks, with waste water fed to trees downslope and sewage fed to cycled fuel forest. There should be a centrally located collective of a settling pond with a primary digester, chipper, alcohol ferment digester, and methane engine house, with clear water routed to fuel forests. There should be a commerce center, shared car park, and shaded walkways. There should be a wide windbreak (400 meters thick) to shelter the settlement and prevent dust storms. Rangelands should be pitted and planted and carefully maintained for animal products, with shared livestock loading ramps, yards, milking sheds, and shearing sheds. The entry road should be downslope and crosswind, with attached swales. Narrow roads are shaded and run east-west with swales for runoff. Swales are installed to catch all village waste water.

1.3.2.6. 11c.16 – Plant Themes for Drylands; Tree Establishment in Deserts [VIDEO]

1.3.2.6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Outline how and which trees should be used to extend systems in deserts - List the things necessary for preparing desert lands to give trees the best chance - Give examples of techniques that can be used to retain moisture BRIEF OVERVIEW Trees are valued for fruit, forage, and seed, so they should be carefully established, using only trees we know to be successful for extending systems. Nurseries are very important to the system, and replication through grafting, budding, and seeding are used to increase the number of productive trees. In the desert, areas must be really prepared to give trees the best chance. They should only be planted at the coolest time of year and at the coolest time of day. They should be planted in swales or pits with diversion drains leading to them and always mulched heavily. Ground covers may be succulents, which insulate the surface, or legumes that will fix nitrogen. Drip irrigation should be in place for at least the first couple of years, and young tree trunks may need to be planted white or cloaked in burlap. Shade should be supplied, perhaps by a palm frond, and fencing should be installed to keep animals at bay. Hardy tree legumes should be planted as support species, providing shade, fertility, and mulch. Retaining moisture is another obvious and constant concern. Shading plants in the morning will help to extend night condensation, and that moisture will reduce stress caused by heat. Cinder ash mulch pits are good for capturing cool air from the night, as well as moisture. In shady, dry country, trees can be planted in mud-lined pits, which provide shade, wind-protection, and moisture (absorbed in the mud lining). KEY TAKEAWAYS - Trees are valued from many things in the desert, so we must be careful when establishing them. -Planting areas must be strategically and thoughtfully planned for young trees. - Consideration include temperature, mulch, moisture, shade, ground covers, irrigation, tree trunks, and support species. - Moisture is crucial and can be extended via morning shade, cinder ash mulch, and mud-lined planting pits.

1.3.2.7. 11c.17 – Tree Establishment in Deserts [ANMTN]

1.3.2.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Ideally, tree-planting in the desert will include a groundcover, a light-proof layer, mulch, wind guards, a stone root-spreading zone, sunburn protection, shade, a guard dog, fencing to keep out grazers, a mulch/nutrient/water retention pit, legume intercrops, insect control, and a mud-lined pit with a rim for protecting young seedlings from the sun.

1.3.2.8. 11c.18 – Pits and Hollows Shaded for Morning Sun [ANMTN]

1.3.2.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Pits and hollows are an advantage in dry lands because the supply shade and protection. Seedlings planted in trenches have shade. Trenches should be flushed regularly with fresh water to prevent salt build-up. Early in the day, heat is less of a factor than water.

1.3.2.9. 11c.19 – Large Lanzarote Condenser Pits [ANMTN]

1.3.2.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Condensation pits, as traditionally done on The Canary Islands, are dug eight to ten meters across and one to three meters deep. Each is planted with one tree or vine, and the inside is mulched with cinder ash. The shade side of the pit is deeper to provide extra shade.

1.3.2.10. 11c.20 – Special Preparation of Soils for Tree Planting [VIDEO]

1.3.2.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain how to deal with large cracks in clay soils - Provide a practical approach for beginning to cultivate in calcrete BRIEF OVERVIEW Clay can crack down to a half a meter deep, leaving roots exposed, ultimately killing them. Instead, we can fill these cracks with coarse river sand and plant in them after rain. The same effect can be created artificial with rip lines. In these situations, gypsum can be added to increase root penetration. Pioneer trees can also be added to the cracks with seed pellets, waiting for rains to germinate. In concrete, soils can be broken up with bulldozers, shattering out rip lines. Then, sulfur and minerals can be added to the soil, and mulch pits can be installed through the area to help with planting trees and creating slightly acidic humus, which will help to soften the concrete. Legume interplants will also help to add fertility, as well as mulch material. Near coasts, dried, finely chopped seaweed can provide a gel mulch, helping to retain more moisture for longer. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Cracks in clay soils can be filled with coarse river sands and planted with trees. - Bulldozers can make rip lines in concrete, and those soils can be improved with sulfur, minerals, and mulch pits. - Near the coast, dried and chopped seaweed makes very good mulch.

1.3.3. Modules 11c.21 to 11c.30

1.3.3.1. 11c.21 – The Revegetation of Hostile Areas [VIDEO]

1.3.3.1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Identify where and how to begin revegetating degraded desert landscapes BRIEF OVERVIEW In permaculture, we are often working with degraded landscapes, which have been salted, dried, and/or weeded. We have to start with succession in a small, manageable area and expand from there. In deserts, we can get advantages from working upwind and upslope, and we have to seed optimistically with seed pellets, both on the slopes and in pitted areas. The most important aspect of vegetating desert areas is being ready for the right conditions when they come. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Permaculture often involved working with degraded landscapes. - These landscapes should be revitalized through succession planting in small areas and expanding out from there. - In deserts, working upwind and upslope with seed pellets and pitted soils helps to prepare the site for when the right conditions arrive. - Being ready is crucial to vegetating the desert.

1.3.3.2. 11c.22 – Strategies for Revegetation of Hostile Areas [ANMTN]

1.3.3.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW For cultivating hostile areas, install primary windbreak swales across the hot winds. The open desert should be covered with clay pelleted seeds that can wait for rain. Pitting and seeding should occur with different drift fences around a nuclei planted to support local settlement.

1.3.3.3. 11c.23 – Creating a Forest in Drylands [VIDEO]

1.3.3.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Describe the unusual nesting habits of large ground birds - Provide a tactical way of imitating ground bird nests when reforesting the desert BRIEF OVERVIEW We can look to an unusual example by observing large, ground birds that excavate shallow pits and create incubating compost for eggs. They leave a hollow in the top of the compost mound and cover the whole thing—between five-to-twelve-meters wide and one-to-six-meters deep—with soil. Temperatures in the nest are then maintained by opening and closing air vents in the soil. These sites can germinate the incubi of a forest. We can start with wide swales, five-to-ten meters across, laid out on contour with 30-to100 meters between them so that they pick up water runoff. In them, we can install hollows every 10-to-20 meters and fill them with wood chips, twigs, sticks, manures, crop waste, and so on, finally covering them with a deep layer (a meter-plus) of sand. While these are waiting for rain, we should have hundreds of pioneering legumes and nurse trees growing in pots, ready to be planted in the nuclei when conditions are right. Once the nuclei are established, more pioneering and permanent trees can be planted between them, with the original support trees slashed for organic mulch. This helps to build a mycelium web for forests to grow in. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Large, ground birds excavate shallow pits and create incubating compost for their eggs, and forests can germinate in this nuclei. - We can create forests in the desert using something similar to these bird nests in very wide swales. - Trees can be grown in succession within these swales to create a mycelium bed for growing new trees.

1.3.3.4. 11c.24 – Mallee Fowl Nest [ANMTN]

1.3.3.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW We can use the example of Australian ground birds and pack rat nests, which have great composting and water retention, to make special niche beds in the base of swales for growing higher quality trees.

1.3.3.5. 11c.25 – Planting Trees on Hard Soils, Slope, and Minor Systems [VIDEO]

1.3.3.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain how to construct and use net-and-pan systems to vegetate difficult landscapes - Realize which plants should be included in these systems, and in which order BRIEF OVERVIEW With hard soils, slopes, and minor systems, we have to begin with recovering planting, and net-and-pan systems are one of the best ways. Tiny pans are cut out to plant trees in, and little diversion drains (at roughly 1:500) connect them, allowing no runoff water to escape without going past a little tree with manure and mulch. This provides stability. Plant pans can be different sizes depending on conditions, and in gully-like runoffs, they can have larger, boomerang earth banks that pacify water flows while overflowing into diversion ditches. The pans should be planted with hard pioneers, and once those are established, shrubs should go between them, ultimately followed by long-term climax trees. In the end, lots of mulch will be on the ground, soaking up the water, and the roots of the plants will interconnect and stabilize the soil. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Net-and-pan systems are a great way to recover vegetation on hard and/or sloped slopes. - Tiny pans are cut out for planting trees, and the pans are connected with diversion drains. - Pans should be planted with pioneers, with shrubs between them after they establish and climax trees cultivated last. - The area will eventually be covered with natural forest mulch to soak up water and interconnected roots to stabilize soils.

1.3.3.6. 11c.26 – Net and Pan [ANMTN]

1.3.3.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Net-and-pan is a recovery planting system that interrupts sheet runoff with an absorption system of diversion drains connecting pans. Hardier trees are in the upper slopes, and less hardy trees are on the lower slopes, where soils are better. Mark As Complete

1.3.3.7. 11c.27 – Net and Pan (Elevation) [ANMTN]

1.3.3.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Net-and-pan in elevation can have pans dug to hold up to half a meter of water in rains. The slope between the pans can be cleared of rocks, weeds, and clumping grasses, which can all be used as mulch inside the pan. Then, hardy tree legumes can be planted between the pans to help control erosion and supply mulch.

1.3.3.8. 11c.28 – A Developed Swale [ANMTN]

1.3.3.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A well-developed swale can have many elements. A trellis can be stretched over the trench. The lower side can have productive trees, bananas, and sweet potatoes (as a ground cover). There can also be planted niches in the swale mound. If the swale is over clay, it can be ripped, and bentonite can be added to sand or gypsum to clay swale bottoms. Mulch, gravels, or coarse sand can be added to the base layer. Many crops can be grown under the trellis. Irrigation and mulch need to be supplied for two to three years, as the trees grow. Then, everything is provided from the swale.

1.3.3.9. 11c.29 – Runnel Traps [ANMTN]

1.3.3.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Silt traps across runoffs in sands and eroding soils spread the water and hold the silt, forming small level terraces that can be planted to hardy tree and shrub legumes. Clumping grasses, logs, stones, straw bales, or wire netting all help to build mini-deltas of silts, leaves, and detritus, which are instrumental in starting the regeneration of soils.

1.3.3.10. 11c.30 – Boomerangs [ANMTN]

1.3.3.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Where large rills flow on awkward, steep, or restricted sites, boomerang pans hold silt and water for spaced out tree sites. The erosion rill of the water is divided and each boomerang overflows into others. Each pan should hold up to a half a meter of water, and the boomerang can be stabilized with rocks, the tree mulched with them as well.

1.3.4. Modules 11c.31 to 11c.38

1.3.4.1. 11c.31 – Recruitment [VIDEO]

1.3.4.1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Illustrate how we can have trees and animals interact while still regrowing forests - Recognize the need for land and seeds to be prepared for regeneration BRIEF OVERVIEW Native trees can live hundreds of years but regeneration almost stops completely with grazing animals. Stumps in the desert often re-sprout in the rain, but these are eaten by grazing animals. Instead, we can allow the strongest sprout to grow and trim the others to be fed to the animals as fodder. With this method, trees will regrow quickly, and the roots will go deeper and deeper. Fire also causes regenerative problems, and we need to stop them, especially those instigated by humans. We need adequate rains and good seeds to encourage growth, first germinating seeds and then hopefully keeping them going a couple of months later. For this, we have to be prepared for recovery, with pelleted seeds waiting for rain and earthworks in place for harvesting water. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Native trees live hundreds of years in the desert, but regeneration is stops due to grazing animals and fire. - Stumps in the desert often sprout after rains and can be used to regrow trees and feed livestock. - We have to work to vegetate landscapes, being ready with seed pellets and water-harvesting earthworks.

1.3.4.2. 11c.32 – Wraiths and Golems [VIDEO]

1.3.4.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List useful things that are blown across the desert landscape - Devise systems for collecting wind-blown debris in deserts to repair the landscape BRIEF OVERVIEW Wraiths and golems are the apparitions the blow across landscapes when it’s just about lifeless. Many things are dispersed by wind in the desert: manure pellets, dust, seed pods, leaves, seed heads, entire plants. We need to set up systems — pits, swales, depression, brush fences, tree lines — to trap this material. These become beneficial gathering elements, continuously creating tiny layers of soil, and this is the final place where seeds of all sorts and all sorts of plants come to rest. We need to recognize the function of these plants as pioneers, rather than identifying so many as noxious weeds. KEY TAKEAWAYS - The wind disperses many things across the desert landscape. - We need to set up systems to trap this wind-blown material. - These gathering elements become beneficial soil builders and places for pioneering seeds to germinate.

1.3.4.3. 11c.33 – Arid Area Grasses and Forbs [VIDEO]

1.3.4.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Realize the many uses for dryland grasses - Describe how grasses can be cultivated, with special attention to nitrates BRIEF OVERVIEW Grasses and forbs in drylands come in great diversity, and a good mix can of perennial grasses in a range can keep animals healthy. Dryland grasses have more nutrition than the ones in humid areas. Grains (for humans), forage (for poultry), and hay are all possible, but they should usually be grazed before flowering, as we don’t want dead material mixed in with them. Grasses can be grown between swales, but they need to be checked after rains. If they are over-manured than might have too much nitrate, which isn’t safe for food or fodder but can be used in mulch pits. When established, sections of grass can pick up nutrients, and grassed diversion drains can help to filter nitrates. Grasses can be used for green hay, with mats, canes, and thatches being all different kinds of grass. The seed heads can be used to feed poultry. Grass can be planted in waterways for depositions. Grasslands can be established with pitted and broad-scale seeding with pellets. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Dryland grasses and forbs come in great diversity. - These perennial grasses can support animals, as they are much more nutritious than grasses in humid areas. - Strips of grasses should be grown between swales. - Grasses should be checked for too much nitrate, which isn’t suitable for food or animal fodder. - Grasslands can be established with pitting and broad-scale seeding.

1.3.4.4. 11c.34 – Desert Aquatic and Swamp Species [VIDEO]

1.3.4.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Illustrate how swamps in deserts interact with the dry landscape - Explain how reeds and rushes can be useful elements for cleaning water and for providing energy BRIEF OVERVIEW Believe it or not, there are famous swamps in deserts, and they are often formed where small acidic areas are surrounded by expanses of alkalinity. The space in between the two is a neutral zone. As well, anywhere water stands in the desert, aquatic plants, like reeds and algae, are quick to move in. Reeds and rushes are great for filtering water. They can filter out dissolved salts and fecal material, cleaning up water enough for irrigation. They can take out over-abundances of nitrogen material and metals. Biogas can be produced from town wastewater and reed beds, and that water can then feed windbreaks, helping to reduce sanitation problems. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Swamps do occur in the desert, around spots of acidity or in places where water stands. - Reeds, rushes, and algae offer great filtering services for waters with dissolved salt, fecal material, too much nitrogen, or metals. - Town wastewater and reed beds can be used to produce biogas and windbreaks, while they reduce sanitation problems.

1.3.4.5. 11c.35 – Animal Systems in Arid Areas [VIDEO]

1.3.4.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Give a breakdown of the animals included in desert systems, including wildlife - Describe the one-hectare safety net designs for domesticated animals - Analyze the need to be careful when reintroducing livestock to the landscape after rains BRIEF OVERVIEW Animal systems in the desert are very specific. Most small livestock, like poultry, do very well, even ducks and geese, but rabbits don’t work in cages and require special, shaded habitats. Large domestic animals need to be carefully selected, creating small, high-quality herds rather than large herds, and they should be rotational grazed on around 15 different runs, allowing areas to rest for several years. There are large, fast-moving nomadic animals that follow the rains, and there are small, sedentary animals that require particular habitats. Plague specialists, like locusts, can be used as bird feed when they disrupt systems, and lizards and snakes, which can be unfortunately be dangerous, can help control pests. It’s important to prepare safety nets for drought cycles. This begins with a hectare surrounded by windbreak hedges that supply forage. Animals will require shade-houses with good bedding, a water supply, salt licks, and mineral blocks. High quality forage can be grown on swales within the windbreak. Animals should be kept penned up. In times of drought, the system will grow off of their urine, manure, and bedding (added to the swales), and the forage will cycle back to them. On this one hectare, 20-plus animals can be looked after, whereas in open lands one animal can require 1 to 6 hectares, or even 60 in degraded landscapes. These forage systems is saved for survival. When we reintroduce stock to the system after rains, we have to be very careful. Rains can cause concentrations of toxins in plants, so stock should not be grazed intensively for four-to-six weeks after the rains to avoid problems. They should be limited, and they should be moved slowly. We need to know about these cycles and manage stock with caution. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Most small stock animals work very well in desert systems, but large animals require more consideration. - Herds should be high quality but low numbers. - Emergency forage systems can be set up on one hectare, in place for drought, and they can support up to twenty breed-stock animals. - After rains, grazing animals should be very cautiously reintroduced to ranges.

1.3.4.6. 11c.36 – Layout for Drought Survival of Livestock [ANMTN]

1.3.4.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW During severe drought, a survival shelter for livestock can support up to 30 animals on just one hectare, preserving breed stock for several farmers. There should be a thatched roof shelter with a urea lick and molasses lick, as well as a water trough fed from a well or bore pump. The shelter should be surrounded by four fields, fenced with perennial hedges of forage trees. The hectare should be fully swale-d and planted to animal forage species, so they can be cut daily to feed the animals. Manure and bedding waste should be returned to the swale trenches.

1.3.4.7. 11c.37 – Desertification and the Salting of Soils [VIDEO]

1.3.4.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List the causes for desertification and salting of the soils - Summarize the process by which landscapes become salted - Discuss viable solutions for preventing and reversing desertification BRIEF OVERVIEW Desertification and salting of soils is one of the worst and most important problems for us, as a planet, to solve. This is occurring due to overgrazing, deforestation, settling of nomads, cropping in areas with low rains, and extensive clearing. Excessive use of water via pumps is drying upper aquifers, leading us to deeper, more saline waters, and when both surface soils and the aquifers dry out, production stops. Natural repair systems are slow, and deep erosion, gullies, and dust storms begin to cause more damage. These situations are preventable if we are willing to adapt the systems, and the early signs are observable. Wind effects dry and erode the landscape. Soils collapse into hollows and pans. Water flows speed up due to lack of vegetation. All of this, and especially the deforestation of hills, causes the salting of lower soils, and the ultimate effect will be the death of all trees there. Salinity comes from different sources: cyclic salt evaporated from the sea and dropped in rains, connate salt sediments from old marine periods, leach salts from rock minerals, and salts stored in undisturbed (but currently disturbed) country. We create detrimental effects by clearing, cropping, and grazing, so we need clearing to be banned in all areas of question. In the desert, salt problems surprisingly also increase with two or three consecutive wet seasons with flooding, due to extra evaporation. Over-irrigation also creates a similar effect. Drains can be installed as temporary solutions, but we must plant a diversity of trees to fix this. We have to create systems that recharge the aquifers. We need twenty times the area for rehydration than the area we are irrigating, just to break even on the water used. When it all dries up, extra water runs off at greater speed on hard surfaces, and tree planting will no longer work. So, we need reconstructive earthworks. Interceptor contour banks about 1.5-meters deep should be sealed so that the water soaks into the base of the trench. These should be positioned near the tops of hills to cut off overland flow, and this creates our own intakes for aquifers and rivers. These look like swales, but the inside slopes are sealed. Contour banks at 1:5000 help to slowly move rainwater towards valleys, diluting salt waters. In about three years, greenery will start to show up and trees regrow. Lower down, banks can go on contour every vertical three meters along slopes of ten-to-fifteen degrees, and we can start to tree this up again. As the slope flattens to five degrees or less, spacing needs to be no more than three hundred meters. Overflows need to be level sills that open to natural flows. All seepage from these systems needs to be directed or blocked. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Desertification and the salting of soils is a major problem for the planet, and we must address it. - We are causing it through overgrazing, deforestation, settling (of nomads), cropping, and clearing. - Surface soils dry out, aquifers dry up, extreme erosion exposes hard surfaces, and production stops. - We can read signs to help us prevent this: wind dries and erodes landscapes, soils collapse into hollows and pans, and water flows speed up. - Salinity comes from many sources: dropped in rain from evaporated sea, sediments from old marine periods, rock minerals, and newly disturbed country. - More evaporation for consecutive rainy season floods and irrigation cause more salting. - Drains are a temporary solution for salting, and planting trees is the long-term approach. - Rehydrating earthworks helps to recharge aquifers and grow new vegetation.

1.3.4.8. 11c.38 – Cold and Montane Deserts [VIDEO]

1.3.4.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Define cold montane deserts and identify specific characteristics - Explain how and where to cultivate trees and harvest water in cold montane deserts - Describe different survival strategies for this environment - Recognize that cold rather than dry can be the limiting factor here BRIEF OVERVIEW Cold montane deserts are high, dry, cold deserts with extreme temperature changes because they are often distant from coasts. These are often high alpine landscapes, where air is hot and clear with high radiation. The plants and animals are often wooly to protect them, and houses need to be solid with a good fuel supply. A good fuel supply is a very important design element. Trees grow very slowly, but river banks will grow trees well. Snow melts quickly in these deserts, evaporating directly into the air, so trees also help to slow this, sending the melt to streams instead. Swales can also help to shelter snows for more water infiltration, and trees should be planted to create shading rather than focusing only on contour. Water flows can also be increased by adding snow traps and fences around swales. This is a storage climate, combining dryland and cold. Hardy grains in small, sheltered fields and root crops are staples. Piles of stone and deep mulch help to moderate soil temperatures and protect roots. Rocks help to warm the soils. Streams and lakes will have very good fish and will attract other animals. Chickens and guinea pigs survive well when their housing is attached to glasshouses or kitchens for extra warmth. Thermal mass walls next to windows help to passively heat homes, and entries into houses need to be double air-locked and well sealed. External areas get very stressed by cold winds, so internal areas can help to extend growing seasons. Earth-sheltered houses work very well because they trap the heat. We can design rocket heaters with wall flues that will help the thermal mass wall. Clothes need to be water- and wind- proof, and we should be careful of radiation burn at the high altitude. Species of deciduous trees are more regulated by temperatures than moisture. Saps, rather than sugar pods, store starches. Evergreen trees are usually conifers with snow-shedding shapes and air-trapping forms. Birds move through the system, eating berries and spreading their seeds. The migration of animals is more due to altitude and temperature, as opposed to rain. Most plants will be different, though some grains and legumes will transfer. Cold, rather the dry, is the limit because the growing days are less. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Cold montane deserts are high, dry, cold deserts with extreme temperatures caused by continental locations. - Houses need to be solid, with thermal mass for warming, and fuel needs to be in good supply. - Growing fuel wood is a crucial design element, and it is aided by rivers, streams, and shaded swales. - This is a storage climate, combining drylands and cold, with grains and root crops as winter staples. - We can combat cold winds with interior growing spaces, earth-sheltered housing, wind- and water- proof clothing, and thermal mass rocket stoves. - Most plants will be very different and behave differently here than in other dryland areas.

2. Module 10: Humid Tropics

2.1. Modules 10.1 to 10.10

2.1.1. 10.1 – Chapter 10 Course Notes [PDF]

2.1.1.1. Climate in the Humid Tropics This chapter is about the humid tropics, a dynamic climate with heavy rains and shallow soils that has many layers of life and very speedy decomposition processes. The rapid life cycles equate to great potential but also potentially damaging the landscape very quickly. The heat and moisture additionally cause several health concerns with things like sanitation, waste management, and massive weather events. Houses here must be designed differently, accounting for the heat and humidity, and garden designs have to account for long hours of vertical sun. Continued...

2.1.2. 10.2 – Introduction to the Humid Tropics [VIDEO]

2.1.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Provide the basic characteristics of soil in the humid tropics - Recognize the areas of greatest concern in the humid tropics - Point out that industrial agriculture has failed in this climate BRIEF OVERVIEW The humid tropics is a very dynamic climate. There are heavy rains and shallow soils that create many layers of life, as well as very quick decomposition processes. While this means high potential, it also equates to a high potential for damage. There are serious health concerns, particularly around waste and sanitation, not to mention the need for shelter in massive weather events and the rising water being a serious issue for low coral islands. Houses in the tropics are designed differently, to provide cross ventilation, and garden designs have to account for long periods of vertical sun. Conventional and industrial agriculture have failed in this climate, so permaculture has a real possibility to demonstrate how systems can be productive and permanent. KEY TAKEAWAYS - The humid tropics is a dynamic climate with lots of rain, shallow soils, quick decomposition, and many layers of life. - There is a high potential for damage, including health issues caused by garbage and sanitation, massive weather events, and rising tides. - Houses and gardens must be designed differently to account for the heat and sun. - Conventional agriculture has failed in this climate, so there is great potential for permaculture to establish productive, permanent systems.

2.1.3. 10.3 – The Humid Tropics [VIDEO]

2.1.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Differentiate the different climates within the tropics - Illustrate how abundant rain, fast decomposition, and bad techniques create poor soils - List serious health and home concerns faced in the humid tropics BRIEF OVERVIEW Climatic types are different, and it’s important that we recognize them. In this chapter, we are covering the humid tropics, so the arid tropics, which requires its own approaches, will be covered in the dry lands chapter later on. Design is in relation to climate, and the permaculture view of that might be very different than the meteorological. Soils and climate types determine how we design. In the humid tropics, soils should be concentrated on creating convenient sources of mulch while establishing polycultural stability. Appropriate housing, built to handle both the heat and humidity, is completely different than in cold climates, and that is crucial to effective design. Heat and rain cause rapid nutrient leaching, and biomass — up to 80% of it — is held up in living systems. Thus, humus production is a priority in tropical soils because bare soils, intensive clearing, and frequent burning can quickly get a system into big trouble. Ancient civilizations flourished using polycultures dominated by palm trees, but mechanized monocultures have been a disastrous failure. Even so, the proven systems based on diverse perennial fodder and food still receives little developmental funding. Health issues are also a serious concern in the tropics. Heat, humidity, and constant growth can cause lethargy, while water-borne and mosquito-borne illnesses are nearly impossible to control. Houses have to be carefully designed to be comfortable and functional. Gardens should be created to emulate forests, with high shade from palms and legumes to moderate vertical sunlight, excessive heat, abundant light, and heavy rains. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Design is related to types of climates, and permaculture takes a unique view of that. - In the humid tropics, establishing soil building systems for perennial food production is key. - Permanent polycultures have flourished, but mechanized monocultures have failed. - Health issues are caused by heat, humidity, and constant growth creating lethargy, as well as water-borne and mosquito-borne illnesses. - Houses and gardens have to be designed carefully to moderate vertical sunlight, excessive heat, abundant light, and heavy rains.

2.1.4. 10.4 – Climatic Types [VIDEO]

2.1.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Summarize the wet tropics, including location, population, conditions, and challenges - Explain the wet/dry tropics, including location, population, conditions, and concerns - Compare and contrast the monsoon tropics with the wet/dry tropics BRIEF OVERVIEW The wet tropics occupies about ten percent of the earth and holds about six percent of the population, with concentrations of people being where production can be sustained. Sustainable systems usually have wet terraces with acidic soil (anaerobic conditions), and the acidity is often neutralized by the alkalinity of volcanic soils. The coasts of Central America, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Borneo, and New Guinea are all classic examples of this climate, often based around wet coasts and river basins. Generally, there is lots of vertical sun, constant temperatures, and levels of humidity that are 80% or more, and rainfall is between 160 centimeters to 350 centimeters annually. Clearing and cropping open the opportunity for wildfires and serious nutrient leaching, and soils then erode very quickly and look like deserts. Naturally, the wet tropics have rounded landscapes with rotting rocks and weathered streamlines. Though runoff and evaporation are high, the abundance of water remains, and coasts and lowlands are often swamps. Rivers reach the coasts as deltas and create the tropical mangroves, the lushest eco-systems on earth. Transportation is usually along rivers because roads are expensive to build and maintain. Growth rate is extremely rapid and continuous. Forests are very layered with many levels of shade and little sunlight reaching the floor. Tropical forests are incredibly diverse (up to 800 species per square kilometer), and the canopies mainly consists of broad-leaf trees and vines with separate epiphyte (living on moisture and nutrients form the air and leaf fall) ecosystems living amongst them. Anything on the ground is consumed quickly by fungi. The mangroves are large in specie numbers and area, with abundant plant and aquatic life (but no natural grazers), such that 85% of the nutrients are in plants and animals, leaving the soils thin and infertile. Thus, soils in the tropics can easily leach and erode if the cover is taken off of them. Houses have steep roofs and low walls for good ventilation, and they are oriented to the wind. The walls are located in full shade and generally permeable with screens, and the kitchens are outside. The roof is steep both for the ventilation and so that it can shed volcanic ash that would build up and get heavy when it is wet. Hygienic toilets are very important, and dry composting toilets are ideal. Clean drinking water and insect control/screening are also critical. The wet/dry tropics occupies fifteen percent of the earth’s surface, and they usually have dry winters with clear skies but hot, wet summers, almost requiring two garden systems. Temperatures can get up into the low 40s and down to the low 20s, and this climate fills the space between the wet tropics and deserts. Here, streams are often seasonal and rains more erratic, causing bigger flooding and erosion problems. Hills are still rounded, swamps and lakes still extensive, but river bars become an issue due to constant changes. This climate has large savannas and grasslands that support large grazing herds. If these diverse grazers are changed to overgrazing cattle, the risk for fire and erosion rise dramatically. Animals that live up in trees only exist in valleys or where there are tree clump islands. The soils are more fertile than the tropics, but they lean towards alkaline as the land nears the deserts. Cultivation still leaches the soil, and more erratic rains and winds decrease the soil. Concerns change from the wet tropics. Small water storage systems are important, and wind breaks become an essential part of design. Tree legume coppice alley cultures are a useful cultivation method, spacing out the landscape with organic matter. We can now carefully select and manage local animals with sensitive grazing cycles, similar to how natural herds work. There is a lot of grass growth, which makes for mulch production, and we can introduce trees as our crop and the foraging of animals. We need to reduce fire as much as possible as a strategy because fires can be devastating, especially if followed by rain. Fuel and structural timber forest can be established as opposed to taking it from the natural landscape, a major issue of landscape deterioration. Water retention via soakage pits and swales is now necessary to slow up water. Landscape rehabilitation using pioneering sequences is something to be considered and can be achieved over large areas. The monsoon tropics is our last climatic type within the humid tropics, and it is really a sub-climate of the wet/dry tropics. The monsoon tropics occupies about ten percent of the earth’s surface and supports a very large population. It is created by summer winds coming onshore to bring rains, and winter winds blowing offshore to cool the climate, much more so than happens in the typical wet/dry. Drought is common but unpredictable as a result of the unpredictable nature of these winds, and activities often hinge on the monsoon rains arriving. Natural forests here are dry, deciduous trees, which drop their leaves in dry season and regain them within a couple of weeks of the rains starting. The trees are spaced further apart, allowing a dense understory to grow. Unfortunately, due to the pressures of population, much of the monsoon tropics has been cleared. The grasslands stretch to the desert margins, and before the extensive clearing, they supported large animals. Additionally, there are estuaries and coastal mangroves in which traditional societies still harvest. Soils in the inland of the monsoon tropics are often laterite, high in iron and aluminum oxide. Though this type of soil does make good bricks, it cracks easily in the dry season and isn’t particularly fertile. This can make survival in this environment difficult, and many of the populations within it are impoverished and struggle. For permaculture design, the strategies for the monsoon tropics are similar to those used in the wet/dry tropics, and this can genuinely help these societies once again reach consistent abundance. KEY TAKEAWAYS - The wet tropics has a thin layer of acidic topsoil, making the landscape susceptible to damage. Wet tropical forest are extremely diverse with most of the nutrients locked up in living systems. - The wet/dry tropics have wet, hot summers and dry, clear winters, so seasonal growing conditions are vastly different. - In the wet/dry tropics, small water catchments and preventing wildfires is integral to survival. - The monsoon tropics is a sub-climate of the wet/dry tropics, with coastal rains blowing onshore in the summer and winds blowing offshore, creating a cooler climate in the winter. Strategies for the monsoon tropics are similar for those used in the wet/dry tropics.

2.1.5. 10.5 – The Structure of a Wet Tropical Forest [ANMTN]

2.1.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Tropical forests are very dense and tall, so it is possible to plant very dense and productive assemblies near villages and structures, which will also supply shade and cooling. In broad-scale areas, the assemblies should be simplified. Upper layers of the forest should be production palms, with thin-foliage legumes and larger fruit/nut trees beneath them, and other fruit and nut trees below that. The sun won’t directly reach below these three layers, but the ground can be planted with shade-tolerant plants like cacao, coffee, and ginger, as well as many other species. Productive vines, like vanilla and black pepper, can be grown up the legume trees and tall palm trunks.

2.1.6. 10.6 – Tropical Soils [VIDEO]

2.1.6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain why tropical soils can be particularly problematic - Give examples of techniques that can be used to improve tropical soils - Recognize how termites and ants replace worms as an integral component of soil life - Discover different sources of mulch and what each contributes to the soil BRIEF OVERVIEW Tropical soils have particular problems. Except for where new volcanism occurs, soils are old and heavily leached, making them deficient in calcium and silica. Old volcanic areas have soils of clay that degrades quickly, so the creation of humus with green manures and legumes is the first priority. They can also be improved with rock dust (especially basalt), poultry manure for phosphate, lime to raise pH levels, and mulches from bamboo and cane grasses to add silica and calcium. Cement and coral powders can also supply essential nutrients and lessen acidity. Fertilizers should be spread out and added in small amounts every six weeks, as opposed to adding lots every few months. Annual groundcovers should be replaced by perennials for stability. Soil types change and techniques change in other areas. On coral islands, soils will be alkaline and often have hard cement-like layers. In this case, deep mulch pits will help to break up the harden layers by adding acidity so that trees roots can establish. Even areas with new volcanism can still degrade quickly, so in order to maintain fertility, it’s important to include plenty of manure, mulches, and legume intercrops. Deep granite soils with large rocks, however, drain very quickly and consume mulches. For cultivating these spaces, tree legumes need to establish a root net to slow draining, palms can then be planted around mulch pits, and fruit trees can be inter-planted once the palms establish a canopy and the legumes are dropped as mulch. For gardens, raised beds can be lined with layers of cardboard or carpet and filled with sand and loam before being topped with heavy mulch. In the humid tropics, termites and ants are the integral component of soil life, much more so than worms. Termites bring rotten rock and moisture to the surface, with galleries above and below the ground for farming fungi. The architectural above ground structures are often the only thing alkaline in the landscape, and trees sometimes congregate around them. Particular fruit trees that aren’t damaged by ants and termites can be selected for these areas. Sources of mulch for the tropics are important because things break down much more quickly. Wood breaks down rapidly, and logs, sticks and palm fronds can be used to rapidly build soil. Palm fronds and even trunks provide phosphate, and bamboos, canes, and casuarinas slow down the decomposition process, while adding silica and calcium. Water weeds and emergent plants are good for mulch, and hedge rows can be designed for animal forage (it grows as fast and better than pastures). Green manure groundcovers can be used to totally control the ground. Logs and rough mulch piles across the slope can be used to create fertile gardens. Deep mulching, 20 to 25 centimeters, is essential for establishing gardens, and burning organic matter is never necessary nor an option. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Tropical soils tend to be acidic, as well as old and leached, which makes them poor. - There are many easily-applied, natural methods for re-establishing and maintaining nutrients in these soils, and creating humus is key. - Coral islands tend to be alkaline with hard layers that can be broken up with deep mulch pits. - Deep granite sands require the establishing of root net from tree legumes and a canopy from mulch-pit palms before they can be planted with fruit trees. - Termites and ants are a bigger part of tropical soil life than are worms. - Mulching in the tropics is a major part of the gardening strategy and new soil creation.

2.1.7. 10.7 – Broadscale Tree Crop in Loose Granite Sands [ANMTN]

2.1.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Tropical tree crops in deep, quick-draining granite sands make for a difficult situation. Fast-growing legumes should be planted as a canopy with palms planted on mulch pits for an over-story canopy over that. Adapted legume trees and native vegetation can then build up organic matter to return humus creation in the soil.

2.1.8. 10.8 – Gardening in Coarse Granitic Sands [ANMTN]

2.1.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Trenching is how we garden in coarse granite sands. Dug to be 1.2 meters wide, trenches should be filled with thick layers of cardboard, paper, carpet or even leaves to create a sealed layer that holds water and leached mulch. In humid tropics, branches and poles can be the next layer, with logs along the edges, helping to raise the bed. In the dry tropics, the sunken profile is preferable. The main growing medium should be sand mixed with humus, with a seepage pipe for household greywater laid the length of the bed. The surface should then be mulched to reduce evaporation.

2.1.9. 10.9 – Tropical Clays [ANMTN]

2.1.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW In tropical clays, the positive and negative charges change as the acidity or alkalinity lower and rises in the soil. Moving higher on the pH scale, the soil is more negative, and moving lower, the soil charge becomes more positive. This is the cation change capacity and ionic bonds on soil particles.

2.1.10. 10.10 – Log Barriers on Slope [ANMTN]

2.1.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW It is possible to pin logs on cleared slopes, where they will quickly rot down. They can be planted with bananas, legumes trees, and clumping canes, with dense legume groundcovers between them. This will feed the soil and increase humidity until, when soil fertility returns, the area can be planted with productive fruit trees.

2.2. Modules 10.11 to 10.20

2.2.1. 10.11 – Weed Barrier [ANMTN]

2.2.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Weed barriers in tropical areas are viable when grasses around the garden are kept short. Everything can be planted in one day if a lightproof layer of cardboard or paper is laid down over the ground, covered with some manure or compost, and deep mulched. Herbs, vegetables, spices, fruit trees, root crops, and flowers can all be planted at the same time. The barrier plants can be canna lily, lemongrass, vertiver grass, or comfrey to form a dense root barrier for root grasses or provide mulch for the garden.

2.2.2. 10.12 – Mulch in Gardens [ANMTN]

2.2.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW In the tropics, rough mulch gardens will break down rapidly with the addition of household greywater. With a lightproof layer laid first, coconut husks (face down to prevent mosquito issues) and fronds cut into thirty centimeter pieces can be put between coconut trunks and planted with banana, taro, and other ground covers. All crop waste can then be added back to the bed to create a high-yield, low-input garden out of readily available material. Mark As Complete

2.2.3. 10.13 – Earth-Shaping in the Tropics [VIDEO]

2.2.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Indicate where swales, mounds, and terraces respectively work best - Explain the considerations and functions of wet and dry terraces BRIEF OVERVIEW There are many forms of earth-shaping in the tropics. On gentle slopes of only two to eight degrees, swales gradually become terraces, retaining water while creating stability with hedgerows on the outer edges. Crops can be planted between the hedgerows in the evolving system. On flat areas of less four degrees, mounds can be planted to drain water on really wet sites, and in the wet/dry tropics, cultivation can be rotated between the mounds in wet season and the pits in dry season. On steep slopes, narrow terraces of roughly three to six meters wide in sets of three to six can be made carefully by hand. Terraces have many considerations. Wet terraces require a constant water input at the top with set drainage systems to control water levels, and these terraces can include deep sections for fish cultivation. Stable clay terraces hold and infiltrate water similarly to swales. Dry terraces prevent erosion and retain moisture with heavy mulch. For stability, half of all terrace spaces should be planted to tree mulch, and for fertility, all crop waste should be added back to the terrace. The equivalent of 30% of the space occupied by the terrace system should be forest upslope, for both stability and nutrient flows. Trellises can be installed over terrace crops for extra harvest and shade, and animal sheds can hang over terraces to add manures for nutrient. Mulch crops can be grown within the main crops, and contour strips can be planted with stabilizer like lemongrass and vetiver grass. Splash stones and plates will prevent erosion where one terrace drains into the one below it. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Swales on shallow slopes can be stabilized with hedges and will eventually become shallow terraces. - Flat, wet areas can be drained with mounds, and in the wet/dry tropics, the mounds can be planted in wet season and the pits in dry season. - Terraces on steep slopes should be narrow (3 to 6 meters) and carefully constructed to prevent erosion, retain moisture, and capture nutrients.

2.2.4. 10.14 – Terrace Systems [ANMTN]

2.2.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Swales should be planted to tree lines on slopes of two to eight degrees, which will slowly start to fill in. Inter-swales can then be planted, which creates productive terraces that retain wet-season waters during dry times and can be flooded in the wet season.

2.2.5. 10.15 – Mounds, Ridges, Pits [ANMTN]

2.2.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Tropical crops utilize three main forms of earth-shaping. Mounds help to increase the yield of yams, ridges increase the yields of cassava and sweet potato, and pits increase the yield of taro, arrowroot, and mulch grasses. Comparatively, terraces require very detailed earthwork.

2.2.6. 10.16 – Sets of Narrow Terraces on Steep Slopes [ANMTN]

2.2.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW With back cuts of of 1:2.5 and pits dug for soak holes, terraces require a slight slope for water drainage with alternating direction for drainage from one terrace to the next. Herbaceous fruits and mulch trees should be planted above and below the terraces and other plants on the slopes between them.

2.2.7. 10.17 – Urban Sub Tropical Design Plan [ANMTN]

2.2.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A standard block of land is twenty meters wide and forty meters long. The entrance of the house is facing the road on the south side and land is sloping towards the sun in the north as it is in the southern hemisphere and the house has been designed with a passive solar towards the north and the private and abundant back garden. It has a very slight fall of one to twenty. It has a two-bedroom house with basic passive solar design, and there are normal features like a garden shed and clothesline. Interesting features, like garden ponds, are productive and aesthetic. Herb spirals, shade trellises, and a pergola patio are next to the house. Practical features include chicken tractors, tool sheds, and a composting area, and there is a fully planted streetscape. A family can supply the majority of their food with this design. There is a forest of diverse full-sized trees: mango, citrus, guava, mulberry, avocado, papayas, longan, lychee, macadamia, banana and more. They may need several prunings in a year, but they will fit into the space if carefully maintained. There are also many vines: choko, kiwi, passion fruit, grapes, gourds, beans and more. There are edible ground covers, tubers, rhizomes, and starches: squashes, sweet potatoes, taro, cassava, ginger, turmeric, galangal, potatoes and so on. There are water plants: taro, water chestnut, kang kong, and watercress. There can be 40-50 vegetables in the of annual gardens and 20-30 species of herbs, medicinal and culinary. Controllable legume interplants include acacias, tipuana tipu, pigeon pea, and more. This is standard style of sustainable garden in an urban area.

2.2.8. 10.19 – Water Continuously Fed to Terraces [ANMTN]

2.2.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Where terraces can be continuously fed by water, small ponds can be lined with rocks to eliminate splash damage, and water crops can be grown on the flat surfaces and deep trenches dug for fish. Herbaceous fruits like bananas and papayas can be grown with legume interplants, for green manure, can increase yields. Mark As Complete

2.2.9. 10.20 – Vetiver or Lemon Grass Strips [ANMTN]

2.2.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Clumping grasses like vetiver and lemon grass can be planted densely and on contour for cheap erosion protection and mulch material. In semi-arid areas, vetiver and legume tree combinations on slopes have shown to increase yields. Dam walls and their spillways can also be planted clumping grasses to increase stability. Clumping grasses lining the edges of narrow terraces on contour and semi-circles on the downhill side of individual trees, too, can be systemic improvements.

2.3. Modules 10.21 to 10.30

2.3.1. 10.21 – Variations on Terrace Culture [ANMTN]

2.3.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW There are many variations of terrace culture: wet terraces (paddies), fish crop, shade house or grow tunnel, palm, or grain. Varying culture and production within a terrace series increases stability. In wet/dry tropics, alternating wet and dry season crops make terraces perfect for this climate.

2.3.2. 10.22 – Terrace Culture [ANMTN]

2.3.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW There are many possible features in a diverse terrace culture. Sloping banks need to include a mixed collection of support species. Bamboo and banna grass provide silica mulch, palms provide phosphate, coppice legumes give nitrogen, and candlenut produce potential fuel. Trellis crops can go over fish ponds. Dry cycle crops — grains — can be mulched, and wet season crops — taro, water chestnut, kangkong — can be flooded with swivel pipes. Splash rocks can help to eliminate problems with water, and back slopes can be planted with banana, papaya, lemongrass, comfrey, and groundcover legumes.

2.3.3. 10.23 – House Design [VIDEO]

2.3.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Describe conditions to keep in mind and how to address them in house design - List designed cooling elements for homes in tropical climates - Relate how to collect safe drinking water and how to handle bathroom sanitation BRIEF OVERVIEW The average temperatures at which humans are comfortable are 20 C in the winter and 25 C in the summer, but the high levels of humidity increase the heat stress in the tropics. Consequently, house designs need cooling elements like shade, cool thermal masses, and cool air breezes. Valley shade is ideal, but arbor shade trees also work, as do trellises with vines. Houses should have white interiors and exteriors, as well as breezeways. Thermal masses — slabs and water tanks — should be kept shaded so that cool air, not heat, is radiating out. Cool from a shade house will fall into a house, and the heat from a glasshouse in combination with solar chimney can help to circulate cool air into the house. Underground pipes can be installed in to pull in cool air flows from outside. Kitchens, which produce heat, should be outside and even detached from the house. Equatorial houses don’t have a cold season to worry about, so they don’t need to be sealed houses. Rather, they should first be orientated to the wind then to the shade. The sun should never touch the walls of the house, particularly between 9:00 AM and 3:00 PM, and the walls should be permeable to allow the breeze through. Vertical louvers will also help with allowing breezes through. It important the house be sheltered from extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, tsunamis, volcanism, and mudslides, and there should be solid bracing throughout the home. Earth banks planted with hardy trees and bamboo can also protect the home from weather events. Safe drinking water can be harvest from rooftops as long as water tanks are shaded and screened at entry. Dry composting toilets are likely the safest choice, with the processed humanure being added to trees, not vegetable, gardens. Roof material can be thatch, which very good but can’t be used to catch water, or tile, also good and can catch water, or most likely metals, which will require venting under the overhangs and at the gable ends so that pressure doesn’t build beneath the roof. KEY TAKEAWAYS - The average temperatures at which people are comfortable are 20 C in winter and 25 C in summer. - Air flow and shade are the primary concerns for building a comfortable house in the tropics. - Thermal masses should always be shaded so that they don’t radiate heat. - Cool shade houses and pipes can help to input cool air, while solar chimneys can help to release hot air. - Walls should never be exposed to midday suns. - Kitchens, because they produce heat, should be outside and/or detached from the house. - Dry composting toilets are the safest to use. - Safe drinking water can come from rooftops but should be stored in tanks that are shaded and screened at the entry. - Structures need to be solidly braced and protected from extreme weather events. Roofs should be design so that air can move through them.

2.3.4. 10.24 – Cross-Ventilation for Houses [ANMTN]

2.3.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Cross ventilation creates natural cooling without energy. Vented ceiling slopes allow hot air to easily depart and cool air to enter. A dampened, shaded area at a low point will cool the air via evaporation.

2.3.5. 10.25 – Cool Air from Shadehouse and Buried Pipe [AMNTN]

2.3.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Shade houses and buried pipes can naturally cool a house and dehumidify the air. The pipe should be half a meter (18 inches) by half a meter, buried a meter deep, and be twenty meters long. Sloping to the outside intake to allow condensation to drip off, it should enter the house from the shadier side. The hotter side of the house should have a solar chimney that draws hot air out of the house. It should be made of metal painted matte black, and with a diameter of fifteen centimeters and a length of two meters. An eve vent can be fed from the shade house into the roof space to provide cooler air up there.

2.3.6. 10.26 – Cool Storage Strategies [ANMTN]

2.3.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Cool storage is possible when we combine a cool air tunnel (half-meter diameter, a meter deep, and twenty meters long) that opens first in a food storage area for root crops and fruit with a shade area that blows in for venting with a solar chimney (fifteen centimeter diameter, two meters long, metal, and painted matte black) at the top. The chimney will heat up and create air circulation, pulling the cold air through the pantry, and the ground will also absorb heat.

2.3.7. 10.27 – Grain Storage System [ANMTN]

2.3.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Grain storage is possible by building a grain store with a top loading hatch that can be sealed with gum, mud or tar. The roof should have an air lock U-bend so that CO2 can escape but air can’t enter. Outside, a simple anaerobic alcohol ferment can input CO2 at the base as the storage atmosphere. At the other side, an access hatch can be use to get the grains. The structure should be raised high enough on posts that chickens can go underneath to control white ants.

2.3.8. 10.28 – Earth-Sheltered Hurricane Houses [ANMTN]

2.3.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Earth banks and specific planting can act as buffers and are traditional for coastal housing. Bamboo groves provide a wind barrier with tensile strength that helps provide a smooth lift of the wind. With bamboo, palms can help to provide part of the core strength. Earth banks should be slightly lower than the roof’s peak, and the frame should be well braced and anchored. There should also be a good drain running below the house. Tile roofs can be covered with a vined trellis to buffer the wind and keep the tiles in place.

2.3.9. 10.29 – Equatorial House [ANMTN]

2.3.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The Fijian buré is a good example of an equatorial house. Traditionally, they are earth sheltered and fastened with complex rope cross-binding. It’s cool due to a high pitched roof and shaded walls, as well as being well ventilated with permeable thatch. Also, thin walls have large vertical slats allowing air through. The center core is strong but has low, thermal mass and is built from local materials. Large drains around it are filled with small boulders to pick up large rainfall runoff events.

2.3.10. 10.30 – The Tropical Home Garden [VIDEO]

2.3.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize that productive trees are the main focus of tropical gardens - List plants that work very well in tropical climates - Identify potential and profitable crops Illustrate many ways to maintain and improve the soil and soil life - Give examples of tropical pests and how they can be dealt with productively - Define a mulch pit, noting the plants’ grown with them and how the pits work - Relate two great tropical garden designs: mandala gardens and avenue cropping - Explain how gardens can be protected from hurricanes, flooding, and strong winds BRIEF OVERVIEW Tropical gardens are largely based on the change between wet and dry season, and vice versa. Large water storages are necessary to get through dry season, and fungus and mold are a constant problem in wet season. Tree crops are the focus of these gardens, and they are often big, like mangoes, breadfruit, jackfruit, and durian. Other common tropical tree crops include cashews, mangosteen, and avocadoes, as well as palms, which involve coconuts, acai, peach palm, and many other productive varieties. Mulch pits are a big part of these chunky gardens. Because they don’t have lateral branches to intermingle, palms, papaya, and bananas all work very well around large, meter-deep mulch pits. Other crops like sweet potato and cassava can be planted on the outside of the circles, and water-loving plants like taro and sugarcane can be planted on the inside of them. These pits become a dumping ground for large mulch material. Smaller pits can also be built, and teepee trellis installed above them to grow climbers like yam, squashes, gourds, beans (yard, lima, and snake), and chayote. In other gardens, clumping grasses can be used to fix the edges, as well as barriers to roots and seeds. Chunky vegetables plants like chili, okra, eggplant, melon, sweet corn, cucumber, salad mallow, and wilt-resistant tomatoes (small, bush varieties) all work well. Clumping bamboos and canes are also part of this garden system, utilized for trellises, soil reparations (carbon, silica, and calcium), and slowing decomposition. High quality, dense timber and light, craft timber can also be grown quickly. Pests are an issue, and they come in many varieties. Large insects like locusts, giant grasshoppers, cicadas, and so on can be controlled by poultry, including guinea fowl, chickens, and ducks. Termites and ants replace worms for soil production and are necessary, but houses must be protected by having chickens occasionally work under, near, and around homes. Rodents, wild pigs, and monkeys, particularly hard to control because they are good climbers, can all cause a lot of damage. Pythons, rather than foxes, are the main concern with poultry, which should be small, flightier breeds so that they can escape. Geckos and huntsman spiders, if they can be tolerated, help with insects inside the house. Hurricane damage is another major concern, and it can be controlled with several preventative measures. Earth banks can protect gardens, as can putting them in sheltered sites, such as valleys. Winds can be screened with clumping bamboos, and canopy cover from papaya and palms softens heavy rains. Swales above and below gardens can help prevent flooding and move water to storages. Specialists crops can be grown to provide profits. Cacao and coffee can be grown as understories, and there are also oil palms, rubber, and medicinal oils and saps. Cooperatives are a possibility to provide research, processing facilities, and a selection of high-yielding varieties, and then this production comes from small farmers rather than plantations. Soils are a major concern and need constant attention. Inter-planting with nitrogen-fixing legumes will provide fertility and continue the cycling of organic matter. Phosphate-fixers — palms, casuarina — can also be scattered throughout the landscape. Many plants put sugars and carbohydrates in the soil, which helps stimulate soil life, but these effects can be created with diluted molasses and cane juices. Pests and problems can also be addressed with preventative measures. Pest can be deterred with plants like marigolds, pyrethrum, daisy, and neem. Clumping pasture grasses must be deep mulched and shaded with nitrogen-fixing legumes. This can be done by stacking deep mulches in pits or between two logs, snuffing out the grasses. Mounded beds will help with drainage issues brought on by rainy season. Gardens should have enough variation for production right through the year, considering wet and dry season versus winter and summer, and they should utilize household wastes, both liquid and solids. Animals can be fed from fodder provided by perennial bushes and trees, and gardens should produce all or most of their own mulch. Dry compost for toilets can be fed to trees, and greywater can be carefully disposed of to prevent hygiene problems. Showers can go over banana or palm circles, which can clean biodegradable soaps and shampoos without problems. Mandala gardens are great tropical design that have low path layout and work best on flat ground. They are fast and easy to build but do have intricate design. The size is determined by the center circle, which can be a banana circle or a pond or an herb spiral, something roughly two meters across. There will be a foot path around this that can be dug out and around it can be five or six keyhole indentations, and the footpath can be filled with sawdust, gravel, or bamboo leaves. Each keyhole will be about 11/2 to 2 meters wide, with a section substituted for a footpath into the inner circle. The outer path of each keyhole bed can be planted with a clumping grass, dividing the gardens, which are designed by what can be reached. Outside the outside path is a set of barrier plants, such as comfrey, vetiver grass, or lemongrass. Outside of that can be a windbreak of mulch producers, with possibly spiky bushes or a fence outside of that if there are roving animals. Path-side veggies are regularly plucked vegetables, followed by frequently picked veggies (eggplant, tomatoes, etc.), and outside that are long-term, cut-and-remove crops. Beds are replanted as they are harvested. Avenue cropping is another viable method for the tropics, and it improves soils, produces mulch, and provides firewood. When a garden is design with ridges, avenues of legumes are planted out between them. The legumes are coppiced at about a meter high, providing firewood with trunks and mulch material with leaves and twigs, as well as releasing nitrogen in the soil. With this method, the legumes are cut once a year, just before rainy season, and crops can be grown both in wet and dry season. Long-term legume trees and other mulch producers (for variety) can be planted in the avenues, and barrier plants can be cultivated around the garden to help prevent weed problems. Clumping grasses can prevent erosion by being plant on contour. Ultimately, shallow terrace beds will be created behind the grasses, and this can be planted with crop. Then, the clumping grasses can be cut and used for mulching the garden beds, creating an even more stable system. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Tropical gardens are largely based on the changes between wet and dry season. - Mulch pits, mandala gardens, avenue cropping and planting clumping grasses on contour are all effective methods for gardening in the tropics. - Pests are a major issue in the tropics, but many of them can be controlled using poultry and thoughtful designs. - Hurricanes and extreme weather can be moderated using earth banks, windbreaks, and other methods to shelter gardens. - Soils require constant attention in the tropics and should be steadily revitalized with nitrogen-fixing plants, phosphate-fixing plants, and mulch plants. - Gardens should have variety of productive plants year-round, and they should use both solid and liquid waste from the house.

2.4. Modules 10.31 to 10.40

2.4.1. 10.31 – Hurricane Garden [ANMTN]

2.4.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW In areas susceptible to hurricanes, it’s important to create a hurricane garden. It should be in a sunken, sheltered space with palm and bamboo on the seaward side. The emphasis should be on root crops for emergency food that can be quickly regrown and storage. Mark As Complete

2.4.2. 10.32 – Wet Food Patch [ANMTN]

2.4.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A wet food garden can receive tank and roof overflow and greywater. This water will irrigate a well mulched garden, planted with semi-aquatics. The banks that can receive dry crops. A trellis extending from the house can grow chayote, passion fruit, or other productive tropical vines. Mounds of yams, pots of mint, and kangkong will all climb a trellis in a humid landscape. Taro will grow in damp ground, and rice will grow where it can be shallow-flooded. Deep water sections can hold small species of fish, and well-drained mounds can have sweet potato, papaya, and comfrey.

2.4.3. 10.33 – Dirty Water Patch [ANMTN]

2.4.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A soak patch for waste water can easily replace septic leach fill trenches. It can receive dirty water in a stone-lined pit that is eight meters by five meters at a meter and a half deep. It can be surrounded by useful species with mulch grown above the pit. Half a meter of rocks on the bottom, a thick layer of paper or leaves, and another half a meter of straw mulch can start the system. Around the bank, there can be a dense planting of mineral harvesters (comfrey) and legumes, while productive mulch plants can be grown on the pit and continuously harvested. The banks can also be planted with soft fruits.

2.4.4. 10.34 – Gangammas Garden [ANMTN]

2.4.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The center of the mandala garden can be an herb spiral, pond, or banana circle. The paths on the outside can be gravel or any material that runs water and prevents weeds, and the footpaths go into each garden as a keyhole. Narrow path-side plants are cultivated along the entire edge of the footpath. Crops that are regularly harvested throughout the season are planted within an arm’s reach, and one-visit crops are planted on the outer edge. Outside of this is a weed barrier and windbreak that could also potentially keep animals at bay, and it can be planted to clumping plants, mineral accumulators, and mulch plants. Inside the gardens, shaped legume trees and/or palms can provide extra shade. The complete system is full of edge events, and the number of keyholes varies to the size of the inner circle.

2.4.5. 10.35 – Avenue Cropping [ANMTN]

2.4.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Avenue cropping with coppicing is a good system for producing broad main crops. It holds fertility and remains stable. Fast-growing legumes keep the fertility stable and provide all the mulch and possibly firewood. Many trees can be cut at the start of the growing period for various crops, with all of their waste eventually returned to the field.

2.4.6. 10.36 – Integrated Land Management [VIDEO]

2.4.6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Provide some important lessons of traditional integrated land management systems - Explain how the different levels of the Hawaiian Ahupua’a system functioned BRIEF OVERVIEW Traditional people have achieved integrated land management systems, but in truth, only about five to seven have been sustainable. These were evolved from social land management systems that lacked technology and used lessons, especially from errors, to govern what happened. Some of the most important lessons/errors involved too much clearing of forests, burning organic matter, and over hunting or grazing. Polynesian systems, such as Hawaii’s Ahupua’a system, were sustainable because they managed the whole watershed, from the upper slopes of volcanoes to the shoreline and even into the oceans themselves. It is still useful today to look to these systems and how they used top down security. Upper slopes are under strict provisions to not clear anything so that they remain stable and continue to produce nutrient leaching and downhill springs. As the slope flattens to roughly 15%, often where the convex slope changes to slightly concave, steams can then be directed outward to spread water over the landscape. Terraces can be installed and cultivated. Human settlements generally work best on the flat, yet still elevated, spots below these lower slopes. Here they are protected from hurricanes and tsunamis. As gardens approach the coast, wind breaks become features, and aquaculture ponds can be installed near the shore. Protective, sacrificial palms subdue winds off the ocean, and coastal lagoons and coral reefs are created by installed boulders and coral blocks along the coast. This encourages aquatic species to congregate, and smaller catches can be harvested while larger fish are put back to mate. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Traditional people were able achieve sustainable integrated land management on a few occasions. - Hawaii’s Ahupua’a land management system is a great example of using top-down security and taking advantage of the entire watershed. - The Ahupua’a system left the upper slopes to forests, terraced the less steep lower slopes, created aquaculture ponds near the shore, and actually created harvesting systems in the ocean.

2.4.7. 10.37 – Ohana System [ANMTN]

2.4.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW This system integrates people to landscape for sustenance, and it is one of the great sustainable systems of the world. From ridge to ridge and hilltop to shoreline, it defines the watershed. On the steep hillside are protected forests that are sparsely foraged. As the slope lessens, the streams are diverted to ridges for wet terraces and main crop production and village settlements. Moving towards the coastline are palm-dominant mixed forests that act as hurricane and tsunami buffers. Along the shore waters, fish ponds grow mullet and shellfish, and off the coast, there is a modified reef for enhanced habitat for crayfish and fish.

2.4.8. 10.38 – Elements of a Village in the Humid Tropics [VIDEO]

2.4.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Describe the essential, functional elements of a village in the humid tropics BRIEF OVERVIEW Any village needs a list of essential, functional elements. Houses are usually in clusters, positioned around a community center. The center has shared components like food storages, a meeting house, processing areas, a retail store, bulk fuel depots, bulk mulch storages, and a nursery. Water supplies are very important, both for drinking water and irrigation. Drinking water can be caught from rooftops or, if lucky, harvested from a spring, and irrigation water can come gravity-fed from catchment systems. Each house should have garden orchards between 2000 and 10,000 square meters, with shared domestic animal areas — including fish ponds — beyond these. Past the animal areas should be community woodlots that can double as windbreaks. Other bits of infrastructure, such as ramps, mobile mills, a power station, and a car park can be shared. Then, the furthest outer zones should be diverse tree polycultures. KEY TAKEAWAYS - All villages need a list of essential, functional elements around which to design. - Houses usually cluster around a community center, which shared infrastructure. - Each house should have a productive forest garden for producing much of its own food. - Beyond the forest gardens, areas can be designated for domestic animals and woodlots. - Finally, the village’s outer zones should be left to diverse tree polycultures.

2.4.9. 10.39 – Evolving a Polyculture [VIDEO]

2.4.9.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize water as the priority in the garden, noting how to harvest and spread it - Explain how to repair a landscape with plants, moving it towards productivity - Outline the number and types of plants to include in a large polyculture system - List ways to minimize work while increasing yields - Give examples of using design to control pest species of plants and animals BRIEF OVERVIEW A cultivated tropical polyculture is usually started on compacted grasslands, an unnatural and degraded situation. Water elements should be the first priority, with the design starting high and being gravity-fed down the landscape. We should be looking for points to harvest and soak water, often along high contour lines, and we should be looking for where soils need to be ripped or pitted. Then, we need to begin with fast-growing hardy tree legumes for mulch. When the mulch is in place, we can plant permanent fruit, nut, and product trees. Fast-turnover groundcovers and mulch species (banana, papaya, arrowroot, sweet potato, cassava, and comfrey) are all planted at once with either irrigation or rain. Plant life in these systems needs to be very dense to snuff out the weeds with plants we want to grow. There should be plants every 1.5 meters, tree legumes every three meters, bananas every two meters, fruit trees every five to eight meters, and palms every ten meters, with small plants filling any gaps. Then, we have to constantly cut legumes and mulch species off the fruit trees, dropping them as food to fuel our production species. Patches of fast-growing legumes can be constantly coppiced and pollarded for organic material, helping us imitate and speed up natural succession. Pollen plants around the edges can attract bees, and gel plants throughout the system can aid in fire-proofing. Larger polyculture systems have to be guilds of well-tested, high-yielding, low maintenance crops, and these are discovered in smaller, more diverse gardens. Small, complex systems have little gardens, walls, trellises, roof gardens, and village compounds. They are rich in cultivated species, easily between 200 and 400: There can be over 100 basic foods, 30 different mulch and fodder plants, 30 or more culinary herbs, 50-plus medicinal and pollinating plants, 20 separate species for structural and craft products, 30 coppiced for fuel wood, and 50 varieties of specialty crops. This kind of polyculture works very well for small-scale production, but it is difficult for modern agriculture. Modern agriculture sacrifices yield quantity and quality and, inevitably, people. Even simple intercrops are difficult for modern agriculture to deal with, and rich polyculture systems are much more difficult to control. Modern agriculture is depopulated and dehumanized. A broad area cash-yielding crop peaks at around six to eight species, whereas a nutrition-yielding polyculture peaks at around 80-100 crops. This greatly effects the way we design, and we must recognize this difference when we do, carefully selected what we want. Our small gardens are where we trial species for our larger, outer zones of production. It’s important to survey factors to reduce work and increased yields. This starts with water, studying rain events and how much water can be stored. Then, we consider access paths for moving harvests, distributing organic material into the gardens, and interacting with the larger population systems. Facilities for processing for marketing should be set up so that groups of small-holdings can work together and share resources. Tree legumes and tree varieties should be tested for what will work best to fulfill the functions we need. Earth-shaping can be improved and adjusted to make better yields. Labor availability is important because it will allow more diverse yields, which will in turn provide more jobs. The market, what it can handle and what people will buy, also helps us decide design direction. Windbreaks takes stress off the site. Soil tests help us know what elements we might need to bring in, especially with regards to trace elements. Planning in support species and intercrop connections is also important. There is a basic order to look at when planning a whole site. We are always going to keep trialing and establishing new niches. We can also design to control species of plants and animals that cause us problems: Pests. Many plants, such as chrysanthemums and neem, have natural biocides that are good for pesticides. Mosquitoes are a concern, but they can be controlled by misted oils and small fish. Tiny bodies of water — upturned coconut husk, hoof prints, muddy puddles — are ideal breading grounds, but even when these are prevented, there will always be some mosquitoes, which lots of animals like to eat for added support. Domestic poultry is great for pest control, with chicken and guinea fowl feeding on insects, ducks on slugs and snails, and geese going after weeds. In turn, we have to provide safe housing — from predators — for these animals. Wild animals, too, help with pests, so we can design in appropriate habitat to attract them. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Cultivated tropical polycultures usually start on cleared grasslands that have compacted soil. - We have to first establish water harvesting and storage systems, working to make them gravity-fed. - Fast-growing, nitrogen-fixing trees cut for mulch lead us into stability for establishing crop species. - Tropical polycultures are in a race against weeds and should be planted densely to prevent them. - Large polycultures will have more simplistic, proven guilds, while smaller spaces can be wildly diverse. - Polycultures are perfect for small-scale productions, but modern agriculture can’t deal with such systems. - Modern agriculture sacrifices yield quantity and quality for convenience and humaneness. - For whole site designs, we have to think in terms of reducing work and increasing yields. - Pests can be controlled with particular plants, domesticate animals, and wild animals.

2.4.10. 10.40 – Nigerian Polyculture for Humid Tropics [ANMTN]

2.4.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Polyculture systems for the tropics can be put on contour strips. They can include goat pens with forage crops just below them. Legume forage trees just upslope provide shade and more food. Manure from the pens can be gathered and spread through the system. In the shade of the legumes, taro, yam, and coco crops grow well. Beyond this, cassava can be planted on a ridge, followed by a wider strip of main crop in full sun until a second ridge is planted to a legume, like pigeon pea. The combination repeats uphill until the final strip is planted to grains, like sorghum, millet, or sesame with another row of large legume trees just above them. Shade crop understories of coffee and cacao are just under the legumes, and on the very outside can be a productive trellis crop, like passion fruit.

2.5. Modules 10.41 to 10.50

2.5.1. 10.41 – Earthworks for Polyculture on a 2 HA Sub-Tropical Site [ANMTN]

2.5.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Diverse earthworks can be set up on a small-acreage property to build a polyculture, even with limited original landscape features. With emphasis on water crop, fire control, swales, padi crop, dense fuel, and food forest, complex water paths can connect productive catchments that rehydrate the landscape and re-direct runoff around structures and into living systems. Diversity increases in the middle and lower slopes, and there can be a main crop of potatoes, corn, beans and squash. Many fruit and other productive trees can be inter-planted with legume trees. Lower down, ponds can have flat bottoms with lotus and fish production and connections to padi swales. At the bottom can be a wild pond with a bamboo and duck island, as well as chinampa peninsulas.

2.5.2. 10.42 – A 5 Acre Property [ANMTN]

2.5.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW This property was designed to produce crops, food forests, and aquaculture. The main valley had a large catchment of 200 acres, and the back valley, 20 acres. A large dam with a concrete spillway bridged the valley. Two back dams were installed and connected, and a high dam was connected to two swales and collected water from the side of the road. There was an access track across the valley into the back of the property. There was a twenty-meter long pond at the low point in the valley next to an open field where a main crop was grown. There was a kitchen garden in front of a temporary dwelling, and a pump from the large dam to the top dam for irrigation. Then, a house was built, and a third swale installed on the hill with a ridge point dam in the middle with a peninsula shoreline on the upside. A swale was put in behind the house, overflowing into a new dam, with several sluice gates and spillways controlling water flows throughout that side of the property, providing recharges for food forests in between and permanent production.

2.5.3. 10.43 – Themes on a Coconut or Palm-Dominated Polyculture [VIDEO]

2.5.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Differentiate the needs of different gardens based on location - Explain how to choose the correct palm for a site - Illustrate the advantages of planting palms in clumps versus in rows - Describe the value of intercropped palm systems versus monoculture plantations - Point out the problems caused by the monoculture plantation method BRIEF OVERVIEW A polyculture in the tropics needs to imitate the tropical forest, which is naturally dominated by palms. They take the pressure of the heat and allow for extremely diverse, layered forests of palms, large fruit trees, bushes, crops, paddies, and ponds. Systems near a village market, where transportation and spoilage won’t be an issue, can major in large fruit production, whereas remote sites can focus more on grazing animals, which can be fed surplus tree crops, with the animals later transported to market. Thus, there is a change in theme with regards to what can viably be sold. Around villages, where populations and markets exist, palm polycultures can be 100-150 species, including experimental plots for later expansion. The palm species chosen for a site are particular to the soil, drainage, and nutrients available, as well as which species are accepted in the market and what products can be made from the species. Low-management species with multiple uses are the best choice, and old systems in the area have likely already selected some of these. Palm nurseries can be created with light foliage legumes to provide shade, and when growing from seed, it is important to overplant so that weaker plants can be culled in the first seven years. Between 15 and 60 years, palms will begin to wane in production, so the weaker trees should be continuously replaced rather than starting the system completely anew. With this system, processing equipment — pressing, distillation, fermentation, biogas, etc. — can be a shared resource for small farmers and used with many of the understory crops as well. Systems with palms planted in clumps behave differently than the conventional row or double-row systems. In clumps, the palms are planted much closer together in a circle and can share a single mulch pile, with all of the detritus thrown into the center of them. From the circle, each palm will lean out from the center to find its own sun, and they’ll end up dropping their nuts on clear ground for easy harvesting. Clumps, too, act as better trellis — for vanilla, passion fruit, and black pepper — than single trunks, and around the clumps, there is more free space for inter-planting or grazing. Earth-shaping, which could be mounds, trenches, alleys, or raised beds, can be determined by providing access to the clumps. In this system, annual crops can be grown for the first couple of years, until the fronds shade out the ground. Then, after six to fourteen years, the fronds are high, and the understory can be planted with perennials. The economics of monoculture systems can be doubled with good irrigation and water harvesting systems and easily tripled with inter-cropping. Intercropping will also help the system gain stability and fertility, as well as retain moisture for dry season. Smaller areas can be more diverse and productive but are more labor-intensive, and large areas should have reduced diversity and easily harvested crops. Old plantations can be reconsidered by installing windbreaks to shelter plants, assessing and replacing individual trees (only 4-6% of the plantation at a time), and using the culled trees for secondary products, like heart of palm and construction materials. Plantation monocultures have been a catastrophe in the tropics. The chemicals have been bad for the workers’ health, and they have contaminated water sources, harming the general population and livestock. Erosion becomes a major issue, with much of the ensuing runoff damaging estuaries and coral reefs. Large corporations control huge areas to produce less nutritious, chemically-laced products, as well as a culture built around dependency on stores rather the self-reliant farms. Monocultures may have predictable results, but they also have extremely damaging consequences. However, systems can be designed to be more productive and ecologically sound through palm-dominant polycultures. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Polycultures in the tropics have to reflect natural forests, which are dominated by palms. - Palm species should be selected to fit the soil, drainage, and nutrients of a site. - Planting palms in clumps can be much more efficient, productive system than conventional rows. - The economics of monocultures can be tripled by including inter-cropping for additional products. -Plantation monocultures have been horribly destructive worldwide. - Systems can be both more productive and ecologically sound by cultivating polycultures.

2.5.4. 10.44 – Structural Variation in Palm Polyculture [ANMTN]

2.5.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW There are several combinations for palm polyculture layouts. A palm-fruit layout, starting with coconut palm circle mulch pits, can be surrounded by avocado, cashew, mango, and jackfruit with understories of cacao, coffee and pigeon pea, and vanilla bean can climb up palm trunks. Palm row crops can include vine crop and legume groundcover, taro with leucaena, avenue crops of cassava with coppicing leucaena, avenue crops of corn with coppicing leucaena, or seasonal grain crop alternated with legumes. Palms can be combined with poultry and plants that provide forage — ice cream bean, banana, papaya, cassia, etc. — for other animals, such as black-bellied pigs, goats and cattle. Grassland evolution moves from rough mulches with legume groundcovers for mulch and fast-growing legumes for shade, shelter, mulch, and favorable soil conditions. Firewood grown as coppices with palms produces small logs, rough mulch, and green mulch. All of these can be cultivated around a village.

2.5.5. 10.45 – Appropriate Village Zonation [ANMTN]

2.5.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Small livestock housing should be close to human activity for protection and function. Outside of this should be palm polyculture and then forage for large animals and grazing cells. Padi crop can catch nutrient from forests upslope. Then, commercial crops can be grown under palm and legume over-story. Beyond that can be less production and more wild gathering of hardy fuel trees.

2.5.6. 10.46 – Land Patterning for Maximum Water Absorption [ANMTN]

2.5.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Land patterning should first focus on absorption on contour. Swales stop, spread, and soak water in mulch to moderate runoff. These can also provide access for harvesting mature systems. This should precede palm and tree planting in the tropics.

2.5.7. 10.47 – Comparison of Linear and Clump Layouts [ANMTN]

2.5.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Linear rows of palms with the standard spacing of 7.5 meters allows for 180 palm per hectare. Six-meter by six-meter alternate double row placement allows for 240 palms per hectare. Twenty mulch pit circles per hectare, with five to 7.5 meters across the circle and ten to twelve palms per circle allows 200 to 240 palms per hectare but also frees up space for intercrop while every palm is easily mulched and watered. Fronds and nuts fall around the circle, so it is easy to concentrate the mulch inside the circle. Natural fertilizer applications are also easier because they can be concentrated in the center of the pits, and pits are also more ideal for trellising productive vine crops. Intercrop yields start high and decrease as palms grow, until trunks get taller.

2.5.8. 10.48 – Palms Planted in Clumps [ANMTN]

2.5.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Palms planted in clumps work well, as do papayas and bananas. The branch free trunks help to make living trellises, and individual trees lean outwards to make for easy fruit and nut harvest. Mulch pits average five to seven meters in diameter with thirty meters between circles. The diversity created by intercropping helps to increase productivity and stability in the area.

2.5.9. 10.49 – Layout of Plantation for Mulch [ANMTN]

2.5.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW It’s possible to set up palm polycultures with the majority of the understory as productive perennials with mulch production. The palms have a surplus of fronds and shells, and a windbreak hedge system will have a surplus of mulch. This can heavily mulch the the outer strips for an annual crop, and there can be an access strip between the break and palms for harvesting and bringing materials into the system.

2.5.10. 10.50 – Ridges, Mounds, Furrows, Boxs [ANMTN]

2.5.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Earth-shaping precedes all planting and increases yield. Ridges of half a meter high by one meter wide increase yields of pineapple, ginger, cassava, sweet potato, and yam. On mounds, leucaena can be intercropped with maize and green manure plants in the hollows. Mounds shaped like volcanoes with heating stones placed on them are good for cucurbit and melon crops. Furrows can aid mulched crops in dry areas. Basins full of deep mulch on raised beds help taro and banana. Boxes of palm trunks, two or three high, can hold mulch for yams, bananas, and vines.

2.6. Modules 10.51 to 10.60

2.6.1. 10.51 – Palm Intercrop [ANMTN]

2.6.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW After four to seven years, the intercropping between palms is potentially very diverse. Row crops, trellis crops, palm trunk boxed gardens, mounds, furrows, hollows, ridges, and fruit tree interplants are all possible and make the system more stable, fertile, and productive.

2.6.2. 10.52 – Yields Over Time [ANMTN]

2.6.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Yields increase after seven years with palm intercrops. Young palms have fronds that spread out, dominating the space at ground level, but after several years, the trunks lift them out of the way. As perennials are added and move into maturity, annual plantings decrease and vines become part of the system. A constant replanting of select trees is preferred to a fifty-year cycle as the select replanting keeps production levels constant across the whole area indefinitely.

2.6.3. 10.53 – Planting Benches in Pits on Coral Islands [ANMTN]

2.6.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW On coral sand islands, pit gardens are traditional, and they are dug one to two meters deep, nearly to the shallow water table. They can be eight to twelve meters across and stretch out in a long length or a circular shape. Palm trunks can be used on the inside slopes to create planting benches, which traditionally only grew taro and mint. But, kangkong, and parsley can accompany the taro at the bottom of the pit. Banana can be grown at the top with cassava and yams grown on the sides and sweet potatoes grown on the excavated soil around the pit. Everything should be mulched.

2.6.4. 10.54 – Mulch Boxes Made of Palm Trunks [ANMTN]

2.6.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Palm trunks make great mulch boxes around palms, and it can be filled with mulch and planted to vanilla, yams, beans, or cucurbits in sandy, alkaline soils. All of these will trellis up the trunk. On a larger scale, sweet potato, cassava, and tomato will thrive in a mulch-box situation.

2.6.5. 10.55 – Pioneering [VIDEO]

2.6.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Define pioneering and recognize where and how it can be used in the tropics - List pioneering strategies for the most problematic areas in the wet/dry tropics - Explain the role that nitrogen-fixing legumes play in pioneering - Indicate how to prevent dominant weeds in a new system - Give examples of troublesome terrains and how to approach them BRIEF OVERVIEW Pioneering is about understanding the sequences of recovery, the mechanics, for an ecosystem. In the tropics, the soils are shallow, the growth rate fast, and the rains hard, which has made these systems difficult to devise because damage happens so quickly and pioneering is often hostile. For example, cleared grasslands are often vast with difficult clumping grasses that make the system lush for half the year and a dry, fire hazard for half the year. Smaller clearings inside a forest have different sequences (more legumes and edge effect) than larger clearings, where pioneering consists more of aggressive non-native species. We can revitalize these systems with techniques like terracing, water harvesting, aquaculture, and managed polyculture forests, but first we need to understand how to address these difficult weeds and situations, how to stop the damage, and how to reverse it. That is pioneering. Grasslands are the main problem in the wet/dry tropics, where these areas occur naturally but with trees dotted throughout the system. However, when the trees are cleared, there are major issues with erosion, rank grasses, low nutrition feed, dry season burning, and—the most destructive of all—wet season overgrazing. With trees gone, the systems lose their deep pumps and spiral out of control. We have to start rehabilitation by planting clumps of hardy legumes that can change the soils from bacterial-dominated grass systems to fungal-dominated tree systems. While the lands recover, the trees can be foraged as fodder for the livestock. As the clumps establish, they can then be extended, and long-term trees, shrubs, and herbs can be added. This duplicates the natural-seeding process that birds provide. In moisture-soaked valleys, it’s possible to plant large nut trees, which need more water, and trees sensitive to wind, like avocadoes, right away. Mulch trees are always necessary, the slopes can be planted with bamboo and rattan for added stability and mulch, and the ridges need windbreaks (hardy palms and legumes). We look for any obstruction in the landscape and use it for a bit of shelter and shade to establish nuclei of forests that require only a little initial maintenance and eventually supply for and extend themselves. Legumes are important pioneering trees as almost all of them fix nitrogen into the soil. Their root systems exchange starches with rhizobium bacteria nodules that provide nitrogen through their life and death cycles. There also some non-leguminous plants, such as clover and alfalfa, that do this as well. These nitrogen-fixing plants supply, on average, 75-100 kilos of nitrogen per hectare, with some species giving up to 250 kilos. The nitrogen is throughout the plant, with the highest concentration coming from seeds then pods, followed by green leaves and ultimately twigs and woody material. When planting them, we can use inoculate, usually available at agricultural stores, to establish these bacteria right away. One year of planting of nitrogen-fixing plants can provide enough nitrogen for nine years of cultivation, and a cut tree can release nitrogen for up to six years. Planted densely, they can be cut to provide fertilizer, high quality mulch, shelter, and animal fodder, reducing the stress on the landscape. They are the nurse trees for permanent systems, helping us speed up the natural recovery process. Secondary forest growth in the form of dominant weeds, like blackberries, might arrive as lantana in the tropics. These weeds scramble over the understory, so we need to set up a system that moves quickly past this. That begins with rolling, crushing, and chopping the lantana in place before planting the area with fast-growing legumes and a smothering groundcover. Then, when the lantana begins to reappear, the roots can be easily located and removed. This will happen within a few weeks of the sequence, when the rains start, and it will repeat for roughly eighteen months, until the legumes are large enough to shade and dominate the system. Once the lantana is shaded out, final canopy trees can be planted and the pioneering legumes chopped for mulch. This is how we switch the process to work in our favor and successfully regenerate forests. Difficult terrain, where landslides might occur, can be addressed with pockets of soil and rough mulch that are planted with hardy species and groundcovers to lock the system up. Then, detritus begins to collect, and the roots slow subterranean water flows. Growing conditions, such as being on moist sea-facing slopes versus dry leeward slopes, can help to determine what species to plant. Soil analysis can help to address any deficiencies to speed up the process. In the end, we want a canopy that isn’t level so that it has a larger surface area to increase condensation water dripping into the landscape. Savanna forestry is dealing with an area where forests were cut and burned for cropping. Fertility begins to drop, the area becomes overgrazed, and the overgrazed lands become more fire-prone. Grassland comes to dominate the landscape. When these systems are burned, it creates dry patches of soil, and things are tougher to deal with. Recovery can begin with rough ripping, not turning, along contour lines and growing nitrogen-fixing trees, using the grass as mulch. The nitrogen nodules and leaf drop will foster the soil. Trees can be planted with deep cuttings so that they grow faster. There are many trees that will defeat grass, reestablish a healthy system, and provide various products, like firewood, fodder, food, and timber. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Pioneering is understanding the sequence of natural recovery then quickening the process to our advantage. - Grasslands, the main problem in the tropics, can begin to be reforested by planting hardy, nitrogen-fixing legumes in clumps throughout the landscape. - Legumes, as well as some other plants, are good pioneers because they help to fix nitrogen into the soil, increasing fertility. - Quick-growing, nitrogen-fixing legumes can be planted densely to shade troublesome plants out and begin cultivating productive things instead.

2.6.6. 10.56 – Planting in Grasslands [ANMTN]

2.6.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Tropical grassland can dominate the landscape and be very hard to work with when establishing a tree system. Start with a very dense planting to create a nuclei of legumes, palms, shrubs, groundcovers, and bulbs with whatever mulch is available. With this established, it’s much easier to extended forest systems around this than in open spaces.

2.6.7. 10.57 – Nucleus Pioneer Copse in Grassland [ANMTN]

2.6.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Planting stable nuclei of pioneering trees can help to make a grassland into a forest within ten years. They should be thoughtfully positioned at the bottom of valleys, in the mid-slopes, and atop ridges. There should be emphasis on any variation in the landscape: stumps, large rocks, old buildings, etc. The pioneering species should include fast-growing legumes, hardy groundcovers, and clumping plants. Pots of good soil and handfuls of natural fertilizer should be brought in at the start, and the occasional slashing of grass and adding organic matter in the clumps can then maintain nutrient levels. Around these clumps, we can begin reforestation, using the fast carbon pathways produced by the clump.

2.6.8. 10.58 – Components of the Tropical Forest Tree Polyculture [ANMTN]

2.6.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The components of a productive tropical forest include palm (coconut, asyie, salak, peach palm) as an emergent species, vines (vanilla, black pepper, gwarena) that hang from the trees, crown-bearing trees (durian, mango, mangosteen, rambutan) on the outsides, stem-bearing trees (cacao, jaboticarba, jackfruit) on the inside, and shade trees (coffee, ginger, cardamom, pineapple, monsterio) below everything. Then, there are all the edible fungi on the forest floor.

2.6.9. 10.59 – Zones of Nitrogen Intensity Around a Tree Legume [ANMTN]

2.6.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Zones of nitrogen intensity are around tree legumes. Around the trunk is most intense, with the next highest level being within the drip line. When the tree is cut down, it will diffuse nitrogen into the soil for up to six years.

2.6.10. 10.60 – Savannah Forestry [ANMTN]

2.6.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Savannahs can be pioneered with mixed techniques. High value seedlings can be planted out in rip lines on contour. Areas can be chiseled plowed on contour and planted to hardy legume ground covers, and in between them can be a contour strip of hardy, fast-growing legume trees. Large, hardy trees can be set out in the good soils of hollows. Leucaena and hardy bean ground covers can be cultivated in a chisel plowed area at the same time. Quick-set forests of hardy, coppiced trees can be cut and will regrow to produce mulch rapidly.

2.7. Modules 10.61 to 10.68

2.7.1. 10.61 – Animal Tractor Systems [VIDEO]

2.7.1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Examine animal tractor systems and how they are useful in the tropics - Illustrate how chickens (and other poultry) can be used in animal tractor systems - Discuss the potential problems that grazing animals can cause in the tropics BRIEF OVERVIEW Animal tractors, particularly with chickens, are very helpful in the tropics, where things grow very quickly. Designs can have animals doing what comes naturally while performing functions to control that growth. Chickens scratch organic matter into diverse mulch material, eat insects and stop their cycles, eat weed seeds and stop their cycles, and provide fertility while they do it. They can be used to prepare garden beds for permanent systems to be planted, or they can be part of maintenance cycles with garden systems, cleaning and fertilizing the garden as part of the design. We can even include chicken feed within these gardens to cut down on those cost, and we can improve chicken productivity by providing high perennial shade with palms and papaya. Meanwhile, chickens are providing eggs and meat. Chickens can also be used for processing compost materials. This is best done on a slope with piles of compost. The top, fresh pile is turned over each week (mostly by the chickens), working its way down the hill. As the pile moves down the hill and is replaced by fresher piles, it becomes less and less interesting to the chicken. The fresh pile is made of mainly three ingredients, one-third to half a cubic meter of each: old bedding from the chicken house (at the bottom), cow and horse manure, and food scraps (at the top). Five turns, i.e. five weeks, later the pile is ready. Ducks can be used similarly, but they need shallow water to paddle in for tearing up organic material. They also require a pond, the water from which can be soaked into the landscape to add fertility. Chickens can co-tractor with ducks. Ducks can co-tractor with turkeys. Chickens shouldn’t be paired with turkeys as there are disease problems. But, small geese, like Muscovy ducks (actually geese), can be paired with ducks and turkeys, as well large geese. Turkeys like high perches and feel safe over water, which can work well with ponds and swales, soaking diluted manures into landscapes. Larger animals, particularly, in the tropics are possible but need to be carefully managed to prevent degrading and damaging landscapes. This works more like cell grazing. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Animals tractor systems can be very useful in the tropics, where growth is prolific. - Chickens rip up organic matter, eat insects, eat weed seeds, and increase fertility, simply doing what they do as they provide eggs and meat. - Tractors can be used to clear gardens for permanent systems, or they can be used as part of system cycles. - Ducks, geese, and turkeys can all be used similarly to chickens. - Larger animals are possible, but they must be very carefully managed to prevent damaging the system.

2.7.2. 10.62 – Grassland and Range Management [VIDEO]

2.7.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Outline the necessities for raising large livestock in tropical climates - Provide the basic recipe for a mineral tonic to keep livestock healthy - Summarize how to feed penned cattle on forage - Explain how to prepare the land before it is grazed BRIEF OVERVIEW Live stock in the tropics needs careful management because the climate is harsh and soils are easily damaged. Grazing and feeding needs to include forage: leaves, seeds, and fruit. This diverse diet makes for healthier animals and land. Water catchments and access to drinking water are crucial, as are windbreaks and shelter. Grazing and foraging sequences can be carefully planned, but the rotational rest periods must change with regards to the seasons, which create very different conditions. Mineral blocks, molasses, and stored forage can insure the ability to maintain quality breed stocks in less than ideal periods. A mineral tonic can be feed to cows (and, in smaller quantity, other livestock) to help keep them healthy. One teaspoon of copper sulfate (melted in hot water) combined with one tablespoon of each animal dolomite, sulfur, kelp, and rock dust should be mixed with a half a cup of organic apple cider vinegar, a cup of pollard or grain byproduct, and a half cup of molasses. The entire mixture can then be put into chopped forage and fed to once daily to each cow. The copper sulfate kills parasites but is in fact a poison, so it must be measured precisely and neutralized with the animal dolomite, which makes the mixture alkaline. The sulfur once again balances the pH levels. Kelp provides the minerals of the sea, and rock dust provides the minerals of the land. Apple cider vinegar provides natural acidity for dissolving minerals, pollard is dry bulk, and molasses creates a sweet flavor the animals enjoy. The forage distributes everything evenly. With this, the milk, manure, calves and soil will all be mineralized. Forage for seven penned dairy cows can be provided with one hectare of land, if all of the stable nutrients — manure, urine, bedding — are sent back to the land. And, cows should never actually graze on that land. For a good forage, we can combine seven parts cow cane (or carbon forage material) to one part lucerne (or nitrogen forage material). They should be flavored with sugary pods and bulked up with leaves, such as from arrowroot. Before preparing land, their needs to be a careful assessment of soil type, rainfall, slope, and the needs of the main crop, animals included. We have to research and learn from the local practices the species of choice. Before planting trees, we can slash the grasses a few times, allowing them to rot in place and build soil structure. Then, before grazing, the trees need to be of good size to withstand the pressure cattle will put on them. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Livestock needs careful management in the tropics because of the harsh climate and susceptible soils. - Water, windbreaks, and shelter are also all very important to healthy animals. - Mineral tonics can help maintain healthy stock, milk, manure, calves, and soils. - Up to seven milk cows can be feed on the forage provided by one hectare of well-managed land. - It’s important to asses the soil type, rainfall, slope, and needs of the main crop before making changes to the landscape.

2.7.3. 10.63 – Humid Tropical Coast Stabilization and Shelterbelt [VIDEO]

2.7.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Describe how coastal windbreaks should be shaped - List plants suitable for each part of the coastal windbreak BRIEF OVERVIEW Due to tropical storms, coasts need to be stabilized by starting vegetation within ten meters of wave breaks. The vegetation should grow at a concave curve towards the wind, which occurs naturally, and this absorbs the impact of the wind. We can use pioneering hedgerows for the coasts and hills, and though soils are bad, there is the fast-growing climate to work with. Windbreak hedges can be parallel on contour and roughly thirty meters apart when the winds approach them from a ninety-degree angle. If the angle is different, then the hedges should be set up in a diamond pattern across both the wind a slope. Or, if the wind comes in at the same angle as the slope, then the hedges can be formed as squares, working on contour and blocking the wind. Ridgelines require particular attention so that they lift winds higher. Hedges can be created with clumping bamboos, bana grass, legumes, and occasional palms. Climbers like passion fruit, black pepper, and vanilla can be grown up the legumes and palms. Ultimately, hardy, wind-resistant fruit trees like mangoes can also be included. These cross-slope hedge rows slow water flows, as well as slowly build terraces with soil deposits and debris. In the end, there is a windbreak next to a productive terrace. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Windbreaks along the coasts are important in the tropics, and they should be concave to the wind. - Hedgerows should be along slope contours, as well as perpendicular to incoming winds. - Hedges can be constructed largely of clumping bamboos and grasses, legumes, and occasional palms, with productive vines and large, wind-tolerant fruit trees.

2.7.4. 10.64 – Rows of Tropical Hedgerow and Windbreak [ANMTN]

2.7.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Windbreak hedge rows should be set out on contour. They can be set out with bamboo and pennisetum, quick-clumping plants, as well as erythina and glarasidia, quick-growing legumes that root from large cuttings. Seedlings of leukena and sesbania can be added, as well as large legumes, casuarinas, and palms. This will establish in two to five years. The pennisetum and bamboo can be regularly cut for mulch and are not necessary once the trees are established.

2.7.5. 10.65 – Low Island and Coral Cay Strategies [VIDEO]

2.7.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Describe the dire situation on low islands and coral cays - Examine the different ways to get trees and vegetation growing around this type of island - Outline a plan for protecting the water lens from contamination - Discuss the specialized diet of coral cay environments - Explain the basic makeup of the very limited low island garden - Summarize the approach for minimizing the effects of hurricanes - Identify different energy resources that can come from this type of island BRIEF OVERVIEW Low, coral islands in the tropics are located between 28 degrees north and south of the equator, and they are largely limited in design, susceptible to hurricanes, and dependent on easily contaminated water lenses. Water storage and conservation is extremely important in these areas, and diets are limited to mostly specific leaf vegetables, root vegetables, and small animals. Wildlife on the island is very specific, largely birds, and aquaculture is easily developed within island lagoons. Historically, island populations supplied their own food, but nowadays, they are almost completely reliant on imports. Local energy currently comes from diesel generators, but there is the potential of using coconut oils or something similar. Because designs are so limited, they also much easier to implement. Windbreaks should be planted around the island, and the center should be covered with dense forest, leaving the space in between to gardens. Sulfur can help to balance the pH levels of the alkaline soil, and humus can be created with hardy trees and mulch pits, which help to soften the very hard caliche layer just below the sandy island soils. Palm fronds, coconut husks, and casuarina are all good mulches and help to build phosphate and silica levels, and salt-hardy coastal plants like sea grape, coastal shrubs and mangroves, break down into humus. Guano from bird colonies should be preserved and domestic poultry can be raised, both of which add important nutrients to the soil. It is imperative to protect the water lens, held in place by the saltwater surround it, from being polluted. Rainwater leaks through the caliche to recharge the lens, only a couple of meters beneath the surface. Toilets are a major concern, so with septic systems and bio-digesters both risky endeavors, dry composting toilets offer the best solution. Livestock, too, should get plenty of high carbon bedding to prevent problems with that manure. The interior of the island must remain densely forested, as this protects the lens from pollution. Drinking water can be stored in rooftop tanks made from cement, coral, and sand, and there is coconut water as a backup. Deep mulches conserve irrigation waters and can be provided by palm fronds, arrowroot leaves, banana plants, and tree legumes. Twenty centimeters of green, mashed up glee that is fermented under plastic sheeting can natural seal small dams to provided extra water and the potential for duck ponds, nutrient-rich irrigation, water mulches, floating crops, and water crops. Cultivation is very specific. Trees can be planted by digging and half-meter square hole about a meter deep in the sandy soil, pushing through the caliche below it to the freshwater lens. The hole should be filled with compost, mulch, and sulfur to help the tree get started. The tree’s hairnet roots will stretch out atop the caliche, where it can easily be fed with bulk mulches, and the taproot will drive down to the water lens, making the tree very stable. As for gardens, they work best as pits around eight-by-five meters and two meters deep, just down to the freshwater lens. The sides can be stepped, bordered with coconut trunks, and mulched heavily. At the bottom, root crops—taro, kangkong, watercress—can be grown with annual and perennial vegetables moving up the side into drier crops, as well as banana and papaya. Coconut palms can surround the outer layer, providing shade and mulch. Log boxes made from coconut trunks and heavy mulches are the only other possibility for garden beds. This, though, supplies a healthy balance of coconuts, fruits, salad vegetables, and roots. These islands need special protection from hurricanes. Because they are only accessible by light planes and boats, we have to be careful about designing entrees. Coral cuts to allow boats in should be in the most sheltered areas and against incoming tides. They should only be about six to ten meters wide, and we must be careful about the tidal effects so as not to produce stagnant waters. Airstrips should be twenty degrees off the prevailing winds with tall trees completely surrounding the strip. This stops forming a wind tunnel during hurricanes. Concave windbreaks should be around the shorelines, and behind them, five to six trees deep, there should be coconut palms to help buffer winds and weather. The diet typically associated with these islands needs to be extended, as it generally is very limited and, thus, causes health issues. It tends to be high in carbohydrates and low in minerals. Protein is provided by fish, wild chickens, and small pigs, which can be included in sustainable systems, such as mulch pits with animal tractors built over them. Greens can be provided by gardens grown in heavily mulched raised beds formed by palm logs. Fruit tree polycultures can be established but must use the organic cycle without burning anything. Though alkaline soils often lack iron, zinc, and trace minerals, this can be assessed using the plant leaves, and the constant addition of humus should help to remedy the issue. Quiet lagoons can be developed for aquaculture by introducing habitats like artificial reefs, coral blocks, and mangroves. Island energy resources are also important, and though there is a multitude of energy in the tides, waves, and winds moving around islands, most energy now comes from diesel. However, turbines could be set up to harvest energy from the filling and emptying of lagoons or the rise and fall of the tide. Bio-digesters are possible but would require thoughtful use of the concentrated manures at the end. Coppiced fuel wood can be grown, but it must be harvested carefully with regards to wind. Solar power is viable and could actually be on floating rafts in lagoons, becoming part of the aquaculture system. Wind power is possible but much more difficult due to unpredictable winds and salty air causing maintenance issues. With rising water levels, however, at some point, the only option is evacuation. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Coral islands are limited in design, susceptible to hurricanes, and dependent on water lenses. - This system should include windbreaks around the island, a dense forest at the center, and humus-producing gardens in between. - Protecting the water lens and conserving the limited water supply is of the utmost importance. - Cultivation is very specific and uses a lot of below level humus production to balance alkaline soils. - Coral cuts and airstrips must be designed very carefully to minimize hurricane damage. - Diets, normally heavy on carbs and low on minerals, need to be extended to create healthy populations. - Energy sources, though now reliant on diesel, are potentially abundant: tidal turbines, floating solar, coppiced wood, and carefully utilized bio-digesters. - When water levels rise too much, though, evacuation may be the only option.

2.7.6. 10.66 – Water Lens on an Atoll [ANMTN]

2.7.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Low coral islands have no runoff, so dams and swales don’t work. All rain soaks in, naturally recharging the lens beneath that island, and the pressure of the lens holds back the saltwater. The lens can’t be pumped out, as that well let in saltwater, and care must be taken not to pollute it. Waterless compost toilets, greywater reed beds, and strict rules for industrial waste recycling are an imperative for survival.

2.7.7. 10.67 – Pit Planting on Atoll [ANMTN]

2.7.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW On coral islands, biologically diverse pit gardens can be constructed by digging through the coral sand and hacking through the hard caliche layer until close to the fresh water lens. The excavation material forms a ridge around the pit, and it can be planted to legumes and vines, like sweet potatoes. Ridges of banana and papaya can go just below the top, and beneath that, tomato, okra, eggplant, and onion can occupy lower ledges. On the damp bottom, taro, select greens, and sub-aquatics (kangkong) will grow.

2.7.8. 10.68 – Sea Coast Planting [ANMTN]

2.7.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The vegetation of coastlines forms a natural convex profile to the beach, keeping the foreshore stable. At the front are creeping ground covers (beach convolvulus), followed by small salt-tolerant shrubs (scaevola) and larger salt-tolerant bushes (tournefortia). Then, small salt-tolerant trees (barringtonia) and larger trees (sea grape) reach higher until, finally, there are coconut palms and casuarina.

3. Module 2: Concepts and Themes in Design

3.1. Modules 2.1 to 2.10

3.1.1. 2.1 – Chapter 2 Course Notes [PDF]

3.1.1.1. Naturally Preparing for Scientific Action This chapter will prepare you for what’s to come. We will learn the conceptual basis for the designs we will be making. Now is when the components of sustainable systems — diversity, stability, yields, times, etc. — begin to become a little clearer, and they begin to connect in ways that are deeper than even can be fully conceptualized. The reasons we use nature as a model, rather than something to control, will begin to make more sense, and from this new understanding, the concepts and themes of building long-term permaculture systems will develop into something real. Continued...

3.1.2. 2.2 – Introduction to Concepts and Themes in Design [VIDEO]

3.1.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Identify nature as our model for resilient systems - List the major components that are the strengths of Permaculture systems BRIEF OVERVIEW This is the chapter in which we prepare you for action. Now, you’ll begin to understand the components — stability, diversity, order, chaos, yields, resources, time sequences — that are the strength of our systems. It will become clear why nature is our model and how the interactions with natural systems create resilience. From this understanding, you can feel confident in the basics of building a system that expresses long-term aims. KEY TAKEAWAYS - By the end of this chapter, you will feel prepared to take action because you are cognizant of how systems work. - You will have understood the important elements of stable systems and how they all work together to make good designs. - You will have learned how and why we look at nature as our model, as well as how that translates into resilience. - You will have gained the confidence needed to move on to learning design techniques.

3.1.3. 2.3 – Science-as-Religion [VIDEO]

3.1.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Differentiate between the two types of science: hard and soft - Recognize why permaculture includes both types of science but favors the soft science - Summarize how and why permaculture uses nature as guide for designs BRIEF OVERVIEW Permaculture is based on science, but there are two types: hard, such as chemistry and physics, and soft, which are the life science. In the hard sciences, studies are very controlled, unnaturally so, to create standard results. In the soft sciences, all of the elements of real life mix and cause varied results. Things are not decisive or rigid, but they can be observed and predicted. Permaculture deals with both sciences, but our system designs are more akin to life sciences, encouraging self-regulation as opposed to complete control, as seen in most modern agriculture. This is how our ethics-based methods engage in life rather than ignore it. Ethics govern how we interact with and within our systems, as persuasive contributors rather than controllers. By letting nature take its course and utilizing what occurs naturally, we make our work less and our yields better. We observe and learn from system interactions, recording different phenomenon and characterizing diverse elements at our disposal. Then, we can set up trials for innovative designs, open to the expected and unexpected results that come from them. From our observations and trials, we can imitate known effects and pattern new effects. It’s how we move towards sensible management of evolving systems that we want to steward towards productive maturity. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Life continues to change and react, so it is never the same as it was before. - There are two sciences: hard and soft. Hard sciences control things. Soft sciences observe. - Permaculture uses both sciences, but favors the soft (or life) sciences, which create self-regulating systems. - Through observation, we learn to do things better and minimize our work, taking interactive results as guides for systemic design. - We use our records from observation to trial new strategies, mimicking known effects and patterns. - With common sense, we manage self-evolving systems into permanent production.

3.1.4. 2.4 – Applying Laws & Principles to Design [VIDEO]

3.1.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Relate how human actions are causing global changes faster than we can recognize them - Discuss order and chaos in natural and designed systems - Define the “law of return”, the basis of permaculture’s third ethic - Explain how energy systems work in permaculture designs - List ways permaculture design uses natural systems to perform maintenance tasks BRIEF OVERVIEW In permaculture, as a soft science, there are no exact rules or laws; rather, we learn from errors. We operate right on the edge of chaos. With too much order, we stifle systems and creativity. With chaos, there is too much energy. At the edge, the boundary between control and chaos, we find the ultimate time and place for productivity. The one possible law we do have, taken from nature, is the law of return. In natural systems, what is taken out is put back. Our designs create a surplus, and our systems constantly improve upon it. Whether it’s recycling, replanting, or whatever, we extend the life of things to minimize the pollution of creating them. Energy is crucial to design, our goal being to keep it within systems so that they grow, reproduce, and maintain life. For this to happen, energy cannot flow through in a straight path but must extend out into the web of life. We want to extend the energy trapped in the system, transferring it from one element to next, as much as possible before it reaches entropy, exiting the system. Humans now have the capacity to change the world faster than we can see the consequences. So, we must begin to realize the intrinsic worth in all living things as means, not just ends. We have to create designs that foster renewability and set-up systems that last as long as possible. Our system goal is to require little maintenance so that they sustain themselves, producing more energy than they consume. What we need to work for is the least change for the greatest positive effect. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We learn from errors as there are no exact rules with permaculture, a soft science. - We try to work on the edge of chaos asserting the minimum amount of control or influence. - Our one law is that of the law of return: what you take you must put back. - Extending the flow of energy is how we make life abundant; thus, it is a key part of our designs. - Human action can now change the world faster than we can see the consequences, so we must begin to value the life of things as much as the end results. - We design systems to last as long as possible, lessening our entropic loss, and to function more through management than maintenance. - We utilize natural elements to perform the necessary jobs — tilling, watering, fertilizing, pruning — that must be done within the system.

3.1.5. 2.5 – Designing to Catch and Store Energy [PDF]

3.1.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW In our designs, we seek to store and extend energy through connecting life-rich systems from energy sources (coming onto the property) to energy sinks (leaving the property). There are many potential ways of stopping, slowing, spreading, absorbing, and then reabsorbing energy and resources. If we trap water high in the landscape, it can supply life lower down, stabilizing the system with forests, pastures, and finally crops. Then, where possible, we can use simple, renewable wind energy to send the water back up to the high point of the system so that it cycles through again. This is how we make the most of our energy and resources.

3.1.6. 2.6 – Designing to Catch and Store Energy [ANMTN]

3.1.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW In our designs, we seek to store and extend energy through connecting life-rich systems from energy sources (coming onto the property) to energy sinks (leaving the property). There are many potential ways of stopping, slowing, spreading, absorbing, and then reabsorbing energy and resources. If we trap water high in the landscape, it can supply life lower down, stabilizing the system with forests, pastures, and finally crops. Then, where possible, we can use simple, renewable wind energy to send the water back up to the high point of the system so that it cycles through again. This is how we make the most of our energy and resources.

3.1.7. 2.7 – Resources [VIDEO]

3.1.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Argue the meaning of progress (as misunderstood by society) - Identify and categorize different resources used responsibly in permaculture systems - Describe the different categories of resources BRIEF OVERVIEW In permaculture, we use our resources responsibly. Many of them are intrinsic, such as the sun, wind, rain, and landscape. Others are living, such as animals and plants. Some are created by us. When we can create a surplus of resources, we get a yield, but we can only get there continually by using the resources we have conservatively. Again, this how ethics work in our systems. There are many categories of resources. Some increase when used, such as bushes and fruit trees growing more abundantly after being pruned. Others, like water flows or wind, aren’t really affected by us using them. Beyond that, there are resources that degrade when not used (such as an annual garden) or reduce through use (old growth forest or fossil fuels) or pollute other resources (pesticides and chemicals). Society has come to misunderstand progress. Progress does not degrade resources, and development does not use up finite resources. Progress and development come when good design creates endless supply lines through living systems, adapting neither an overabundance nor lack of surplus but finding the right balance of enough. KEY TAKEAWAYS - There are many types of resources, and the way we utilize each different type is critical. - Some resources can be used modestly and actually increase: fruit trees, bushes, domestic animals. - Some resources are unaffected by our use of them: water flows, wind currents, a well-managed eco-system. - Some resources degrade when they are not used: buildings, kitchen gardens. - Some resources reduce through use: old growth forests, clay deposits, fossil fuels. - Some resources pollute and destroy other resources: chemicals, radioactivity, pesticides. Progress is not as society currently sees it, which uses up finite resources and creates abundant waste. - Instead, progress is the creation of systems that generate renewable supply lines. - “Today’s luxuries are tomorrow’s disasters.”

3.1.8. 2.8 – Everything Gardens [ANMTN]

3.1.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW When we consider both nature and ordinary human activities, we can see that many of our actions are also performed in natural systems. Whether domesticated or wild, animals engage in similar activities. Some animals prune, such as goats or kangaroos. Many animals dig, say rabbits or pigs, and many more mow, like grazing sheep and cattle. By recognizing these natural occurrences and their results, we can learn to make our actions more appropriate for a truly productive environment, in which we and other species can thrive.

3.1.9. 2.9 – Yields [VIDEO]

3.1.9.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Contrast permaculture and agriculture - Differentiate between yields and resources - Point out how permaculture makes use of unusual resources - Give examples of efficient techniques utilized in permaculture - Explain the holistic analysis that makes the permaculture approach unique BRIEF OVERVIEW Yields are different than resources. They can be measured easily and understood. A yield is simply the surplus a system produces. These can be surpluses in energy, nutrition, security or a number of things. In permaculture, we don’t push our systems beyond what is enough. Over-supplying and over-producing creates chaotic, pollutant results. Unlike agriculture, which generally concentrates on a singular element, permaculture promotes diverse yields. We look to occupy niches that aren’t currently filled within the system. We then add new productive species to increase yield. Even our homes, roadways, and other non-living elements are used create yields, producing energy instead of consuming it. We make sure that available niches get occupied. This type of design increases overall yield and lessens maintenance, such as with water catchment systems in the landscape. We also use efficient techniques: piecing together guilds, creating edges, adopting useful patterns, and playing with time cycles. We try to work less for a greater, more diverse yield. Permaculture also adopts unusual resources. For example, many weeds are edible and highly nutritious, so they are a good yield, even though culturally they aren’t commonly used as food. People can be the biggest impediment to potential yield by limiting our perception of what is valuable. Instead, we design ways for everything in our system have intrinsic worth. Our concept of a yield is holistic. We recognize the need to collect and store energy, harvest water, grow food in diverse abundance, and limit the demand to only what is needed. We measure our yields over an area, over expanses of time, appreciating how the production in our systems increases and the energy needed to maintain them decreases as the design matures. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Yields are the surplus after the needs of our systems are met. - We strive to meet our needs but not overwork our systems for more surplus than is necessary. - Forcing a system to exceed its productive potential creates excess, i.e. pollution, and chaos. - Yields can be many different things: energy, water, food, health, social interactions, etc. - We aim for diverse yields rather than only focusing a one crop in one space. - Our designs are meant to increase yields while lowering the need for maintenance. - Potential yields can be limited by human perception, such as not eating nutritious, edible weeds because they are not within our common culture construct. - We measure our yield over an area and over time, not from any specific amount of any one crop or resource produced.

3.1.10. 2.10 – Cycles: A Niche in Time [VIDEO]

3.1.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Interpret cycles as the permaculture outlook on time - Paraphrase how cycles may occur in the span of a day (in a public park) - Give an example of using cycles in a permaculture design BRIEF OVERVIEW Cycles are how we look at time within our designs, and they are recurring events that happen within systems. They disrupt entropy (loss of energy) by occupying materials, nutrients, and energy for certain amounts of time. So, in our designs, we don’t just look at space; we also consider time. Increasing cycles is another way of increasing yields. Niches of time occur in many designs. Take a standard public park. It goes through many cycles in a day. Early morning hours might be the time for joggers. Mid-morning, mothers with young children bring them to play or stroll. Pensioners come for midday sunshine. Families arrive after school lets out. Young couples take early evening walks, Even, after dark, homeless people use parks as a place to sleep. Good design accounts for these sorts of cycles in time. With food production, we might think of time cycles as applying to animals and land. It’s good practice to graze different types of animals over the same piece of land in a useful sequence, as they eat different parts of grass or brush, keeping the vegetation maintained. Using poultry between grazing animals can help the soil stay naturally tilled and the pest problems down. We want to use natural and sensible time cycles, like this, to make our designs function at a higher level. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Both space and time are important elements in permaculture design. - Cycles are recurring phenomenon, such as decomposition, which disrupt entropy while life (or death) takes its course. - By utilizing niches in time, we can change from having too little to having high quality, efficient cycles. - Like filling the different niches in space, doing so in time, also creates diversity, allowing more species to use the same piece of land during different cycles.

3.2. Modules 2.11 to 2.22

3.2.1. 2.11 – Industrial Methods of Producing an Egg [ANMTN]

3.2.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW What does it take to produce an industrial egg? We need a battery chicken factory. It’s a horrible place that also produces volumes of contaminated waste. The factory is built of metal components, mined and manufactured. A power station to keep all these factories — the chicken, the mining, the metal smelter, and the component production — running. To run the power station, we’ll need an oil rig supplying an oil refinery. We need trains to carry grains, tended with heavy tractors on large monoculture grain fields treated with biocides and fertilizers, which come in plastic packaging. There are boats taking fish from waters, the fish then having to be processed in yet another factory, to be turned into pellets for chicken (for their protein instead of ours). The feed has to be trucked to the battery chicken factory. What have we forgotten? Trucking to supermarkets, antibiotics…

3.2.2. 2.12 – Permaculture Methods of Producing an Egg [ANMTN]

3.2.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A permaculture egg comes from a healthy, low-energy environment. Some metal is required for things like roofing, guttering, a water tank, and wiring, but this is so minimal it could be possibly produced with renewable energy. The chickens will live in a forage food forest with all they require: hard seeds (legumes), protein-rich fruit (mulberry), greens (comfrey), insects and grit. Clean water is caught from the roof and dispense through the catchment tank. This arrangement allows them to lead healthier lives for longer and with less stressful. This more natural existence produces more nutritious, chemical-free eggs. Permaculture eggs.

3.2.3. 2.13 – Niches in Space and Time: Schedues [ANMTN]

3.2.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Designing for niches in space and time take many aspects into consideration. The vertical layering of vegetation, the slope of land, the flow of energy, and the orders of streams available all factor in. The different permanent and migratory species that occupy different sites on the land (and when they do occupy those spaces) create niche opportunities. The edges and boundaries always matter, as do seasonal climate changes and vegetative flare-ups that occur with them. By accounting for the evolution of the whole system, there are always ways to enrich the diversity present.

3.2.4. 2.14 – How Niches are Physical Sites [PDF]

3.2.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The schematic version of energy pathways through the valley system - how niches are physical sites

3.2.5. 2.15 – Pyramids, Food Webs, Growth, and Vegetarianism [VIDEO]

3.2.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Argue that the food pyramid is not an accurate assessment of the food chain - Distinguish the design requirements of plant-based systems versus omnivorous systems - Evaluate the dangers of both plant-based and omnivorous systems BRIEF OVERVIEW The pyramid view of food supply lines, such as we find in today’s overly controlled chains, has man at the pinnacle moving down to animals then to the larger supply of insects and, ultimately, the largest of food supplies with plants. However, in reality, our systems are much more complex and more web-like, with interactions between all elements within the food chain. In a plant-based diet, we have taken animals out of our system, which means we must carefully put all waste products — including from the bathroom — directly back into the garden. It’s the only way to maintain soil fertility, which animals naturally play a large role in maintaining. A plant-based diet from industrial systems is not from sustainable sources and damages the planet severely. The food is taken off the land and never returned, thus depriving the soil of its necessary cycling of nutrients. Omnivorous diets — or farms — are the best expression of natural systems, as they include all of the elements that occur in nature. Animals play an important role in converting things that are inedible for humans into the fertility needed to grow things that we can eat. Without this component, it’s much more difficult to maintain soil life and fertility. In general, this provides the most nutritionally complete way of eating. The downside to the omnivorous diet is that food toxins tend to accumulate higher up in the supply pyramid, meaning meat-eaters are more susceptible to poisons that might be within the supply chain. For plant-based diets, the issue more often is famine, when crop production goes awry and leaves little to eat. Regardless, the most sustainable, healthy way to get food is from your home garden. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Food supply lines are more complex than a simple top-to-bottom pyramid and behave more like food web. - Plant-based diets require serious care to return all waste back to the garden to maintain soil fertility. - Animals play a huge role in the food web, converting inedible plants into soil fertility, which can be used to grow food fit for humans. - A diet, plant-based or otherwise, from industrial systems is not sustainable because the waste products are not being returned to the soil. - Omnivorous diets best express the natural systems, as well as supply denser nutrition. - Whatever the diet, the most sustainable way to obtain food is from a home garden.

3.2.6. 2.16 – Trophic Pyramid [ANMTN]

3.2.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The trophic pyramid, with humans right at the top, doesn’t explain how species actually interact within food consumption. Less a pyramid and more a matrix, most elements are omnivorous and participate in systems from the top to bottom. We all create waste products, which then decompose and feed the soil so that it can all cycle through again. Those at the top of pyramid are, in reality, inside a life web. An understanding of this, as it naturally is, helps us put everything into its rightful position when we are designing.

3.2.7. 2.17 – Complexity and Connections [VIDEO]

3.2.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Summarize the effects of modern agricultural techniques: desertification - Analyze the difference between permaculture designs and other agricultural techniques - Define how we assess that our design systems are working BRIEF OVERVIEW Permaculture connects disciplines, and the designs that come from it, like systems in nature, are wildly complex. Many other agricultural techniques — monocultures, slash-and-burn, seasonal tilling — destroy this complexity in order to create something simple to control. However, this simplicity results in less stable production, reliant on constant monitoring and inputs.

3.2.8. 2.18 – Order & Chaos [VIDEO]

3.2.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Evaluate chaos and order in natural and designed systems - Outline the chaotic effect of tidiness in ornamental gardens and suburban lawns - Identify the factors of creating a harmonious system and the results of mismanaging these factors - Relate how permaculture systems work in relation to natural systems BRIEF OVERVIEW We are trying to create order, and when we get it wrong, the result is chaos. This happens in natural and designed systems. We want our systems to produce surplus, but if we oversupply or undersupply the necessary elements, like sun and water and fertility, we unbalance the system and create chaos. In nature, this could come from a weather event or the sudden presence of a predator. The components within our designs need to work together beneficially. When each element has a positive connection with the other elements around it, that’s a harmonious system. On the other hand, if we force too many connections or don’t encourage enough, then things break down. The energy consumption will outweigh the output, leaving things anemic, or the energy input will oversupply, creating pollutants. From the ground level, a rain forest may look confusing, but in actuality, it is a system that produces a great amount, each element playing a vital role, both in life and death. It does not require outside inputs. It maintains itself and is very stable. This is the type of order we are looking to create. We want our designs to function like natural systems, with low input and high yield. Tidiness, such as in ornamental gardens or suburban lawns, is actually chaotic. A natural system can not survive this way, which is why lawns require so much energy to maintain. They may look clean, but in actuality, the systems are maintained disorder, with an energy audit that shows complete dysfunction. Thus, we need to redefine what we consider ordered. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We want to design ordered systems, in which energy consumption and production is balanced. - An overabundance or lacking creates chaotic circumstances in both natural and design systems. - The components within our designs should work together beneficially to create order and harmony. - Forced conditions of tidiness, in terms of energy, is disorder, as the system is not balanced. - Natural systems may look confusing or untidy, but a real assessment of order is through yield. - Clipped lawns and ornamental gardens, though neat, are actually complete chaos for the natural system; thus, they require constant maintenance. - We must change our perception of what order is.

3.2.9. 2.19 – Permitted and Forced Functions [VIDEO]

3.2.9.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Differentiate between ‘permitted’ and ‘forced’ functions - Give examples of modern agriculture forcing functions - Illustrate how elements in a system can benefit each other - Explain the way natural functions perform in permaculture systems BRIEF OVERVIEW There are different types of function: permitted and forced. Living elements perform many functions in natural systems, but we can definitely force too many functions on the elements in our system. Modern agriculture is forcing functions everywhere. Factory farms create unnatural modes of production, creating stressed out, unhealthy animals full of antibiotics. Mass-production fruit trees can be overfed on false fertility, such that the synthetic fertilizer a forced upon the trees and outweigh the fruit produced by several times. Crops in fields are stripped of natural systems and put into unhealthy, force-fed production that utilizes GMOs, synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and so on. We are forcing situations in our food production that are short-term and ultimately collapse. But, elements within the system can be beneficial to the other parts of the system. Productive plants can help with fertility. They can help to control weeds. They can deter pests or condition the landscape. Put in a natural situation with natural roles, the plant — or animal or human — will have less stress but a higher quality performance with less input. It’s the input to output assessment that a designer should be making. We want our elements to achieve but not be overworked, and we want the same for ourselves. Stress prevents natural function and health. A harmonic system has interacting natural functions that supply the essential needs, not an abundance beyond their functional capability. KEY TAKEAWAYS - There are different types of function: permitted and forced. - Key living elements perform many functions, but we shouldn’t require too much of them. - Modern food production forces functions, creating stressed, overworked plants and animals that cannot live long within the system. - Permaculture wants elements to achieve but not be overworked or stress. - A good design has interacting natural functions that supply the essential needs of the system.

3.2.10. 2.20 – Diversity [VIDEO]

3.2.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Describe the diversity we want for our designed systems - Break down the accumulation and utilization of information in interactive designs - Formulate management strategies for diverse systems BRIEF OVERVIEW Nature is obviously diverse, and even harsh climates, such as the polar systems, have complex diversity. However, diversity alone is not enough to create stability or production. A design must be legitimized, the diversity there put together with purpose and each element with its own functions amongst its counterparts. The diversity that we want looks for elements with multiple functions. We want a system that self-regulates and maintains itself, such that we can let it evolve to reach stability. We are creating positive connections between elements, not just diversity for its own sake. Elements need to perform a function, supply a need, and/or consume an overabundant resource. In systems design, information is a crucial resource we need to position each element for positive interactions with the elements around it. As systems evolve, we gather more and more information, which acts as an energy store when we design again. In the practical permaculture design, information is gathered and then applied, utilizing our observations and insights. It is very powerful to have interconnectedness between species. With our growing information, polyculture design is being refined, and we are assembling species that have never been combined. We are creating guilds, grouping elements to an advantage. As these guilds mature, they become more efficient and open to larger interactions, such as with animals. In this way, we can design disturbances that further productivity, cautiously managing landscape beyond what natural systems do. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Nature is diverse in all climates and landscapes. But, diversity alone isn’t enough for systems design. - The designed diversity must be with purpose, creating valuable connections between elements. - All elements should perform functions, supply needs, and/or consume overabundant resources. Information becomes a crucial resource in design, helping us position elements for positive interaction. - Interconnectedness between elements, such as guilds with plants, is a powerful advantage. - Once systems are established, we can design careful disturbances for managing healthy systems beyond natural production.

3.2.11. 2.21 – Stability [VIDEO]

3.2.11.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Illustrate how self-regulating systems build their own stability through evolution - Summarize our approach for creating stability BRIEF OVERVIEW We find stability through self-regulatory systems creating life support networks. Some tribal agriculture systems have continued productivity for a thousand years, even more. This sort of productivity is the result of constant feedback and response, elements reacting and adjusting to create a constant yield. We are simply the managers of these systems. Self-regulating systems don’t have a predictable climax, but rather the evolution is the result of adjustments. Living systems are not exact. They adapt to things like climate change or nutrient profiles in the soil, distorting what once seemed the endpoint. As managers of the system, recognizing and fully realizing the potential of these adjustments is our job. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Stability is found through self-regulation, a system that builds its own life support. - Stable systems are constantly adjusting and reacting to the environment to maintain productivity. - The climatic state of designed and natural systems is not exact. It is something that evolves. - As managers of these systems, our job is to adjust with them. Adapting helps us reach stability.

3.2.12. 2.22 – Time and Yield [VIDEO]

3.2.12.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain a productive ecosystem (in the form of the American prairies) - Give an example of time cycles in mature systems - Appraise the productivity of mature permaculture systems BRIEF OVERVIEW We find stability through self-regulatory systems creating life support networks. Some tribal agriculture systems have continued productivity for a thousand years, even more. This sort of productivity is the result of constant feedback and response, elements reacting and adjusting to create a constant yield. We are simply the managers of these systems. Self-regulating systems don’t have a predictable climax, but rather the evolution is the result of adjustments. Living systems are not exact. They adapt to things like climate change or nutrient profiles in the soil, distorting what once seemed the endpoint. As managers of the system, recognizing and fully realizing the potential of these adjustments is our job. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Stability is found through self-regulation, a system that builds its own life support. - Stable systems are constantly adjusting and reacting to the environment to maintain productivity. - The climatic state of designed and natural systems is not exact. It is something that evolves. - As managers of these systems, our job is to adjust with them. Adapting helps us reach stability.

4. Module 12: Humid Cool to Cold Climates

4.1. Modules 12.1 to 12.10

4.1.1. 12.1 – Chapter 12 Course Notes

4.1.1.1. Humid Cool Climates: An Overview This section covers humid cool to cold climates, where rainfall definitely exceeds evaporation, and in this climate, frosts and fogs are also very common. Summers tend to be dry and hot, while winters are wet and cold. The warmest parts of the cool to cold climate are those regions with a Mediterranean environment, and those very areas, often near inland deserts, are the ones most at risk of desertification. The humid cool climate is where broad-acre agriculture methods originated, and it is these very methods that now threaten this and other regions. Previously, landscapes were a mosaic of forests and hedgerows providing shelter for small fields, meadows, and vegetable patches. With good design, moving away from destructive broad-acre methods, we can eliminate this trend towards desertification and return to more sustainable systems. Continued...

4.1.2. 12.2 – Introduction to Humid Cool to Cold Climates [VIDEO]

4.1.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize how winter affects our designs for housing, gardens, and food storage BRIEF OVERVIEW In humid cool to cold climates, winter really affects what we were are doing. We have to design houses to heat themselves, lessening energy costs but keeping the environment comfortable. Soils here are fertile, but harvesting water, fertilizing soils, and cycling growth are still very important, as well as storing food and sheltering animals. We have to utilize long-light summers with great growing conditions, concentrating the optimal seasons to provide for leaner winters. This is the climate for surpluses. KEY TAKEAWAYS - In humid cool to cold climates, winter has a serious effect on what we are doing. - Structures must be designed to heat themselves. - Soils are fertile, and summers have lots of light for excellent growing conditions. - Harvesting water, fertilizing soils, and cycling growth is still important, as are storing food and sheltering animals. - This climate is ideal for creating surpluses.

4.1.3. 12.3 – Humid Cool to Cold Climates [VIDEO]

4.1.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Describe the weather in humid cool to cold climates - Contrast past temperate landscapes to those we have today BRIEF OVERVIEW Now, we’ll look at the humid cool to cold climates, which definitely have more rainfall than evaporation. They also have regular frost and fogs. Winters are wetter, and summers are drier. The warmest end of this spectrum is the Mediterranean climate, and much of Europe and Southwest Asia — from this climate — are where contemporary broad-acre agriculture developed. These inappropriate methods are destructive, extremely so when exported to dryland and tropical climates. In the past, landscapes were a mosaic of forests and hedgerows, with meadows, small fields, small vegetable systems, and up to 70% of landscape forested. Today, areas are subsidized for production, providing short-term financial gains at a high cost to the environment and people. Especially in the Mediterranean climates, this system causes rapid desertification, but we can eliminate this effect with good design. Key Takeaways - Humid cool and cold climates have more rainfall than evaporation. - Frosts and fogs are common, and winters are wetter, while summers are drier. - The warmest parts are places with the Mediterranean climate. - This is where the destructive contemporary, broad-acre agriculture methods were developed. - Landscapes used to be a mosaic of forests and hedgerows that protected small meadows and fields. - Now, large areas are subsidized for production that will provide short-term profits but serious damage. - With good design, we can eliminate the desertification caused by broad-acre agriculture.

4.1.4. 12.4 – Characteristics of Humid Cool to Cold Climates [VIDEO]

4.1.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List the different landscape features of humid cool climates, including prominent plants - Summarize the basic climatic changes that occur within a given year in this climate - Distinguish the Mediterranean climate from others in the humid cool regions - Discuss different ways to predict frost-prone areas and choose less frost-prone spaces BRIEF OVERVIEW Humid cool climates have a variety of berries and fungi, mixed evergreen and deciduous forests, as well as meadows, lakes, and rivers that are rich in species. There are also marshes, glacial moraines, prairies, and steps. In general, it is very lush. Houses here should be solid with special attention on providing warmth in the winter, and there should be cellars, barns for hay, field shelters, and root crops for storage. There are different degrees of frosts, ranging from snow to ice to frozen ground, with lots of warmth lost to cold winds. Usually, summers are dry, and winters are wet. The coldest times of year average temperature below freezing, and the warmest times will average above 10 degrees Celsius. Most growth occurs in the spring and summer, with any possible droughts occurring mid-to-late summer, and autumn also has a smaller growth spurt. In the dormant winter, fungi appear. In the Mediterranean climates, growth is in the valleys, with trees on the slopes, and here the situation is difficult because of limitations from hot, dry summers, as well as cold winters. On the western coasts, near 40 degrees latitude, western winds bring in lots of rain fronts, every seven to ten days, so windbreaks are absolutely necessary, determining the crop yield potential. Stone walls separated with a soil cap in the center can have hedge rows planted on top to create a break. Aspect and shade can extend frost, so it’s important to consider this in development. Cold air sinks into valleys, with frost lines that are noticeable by observing the vegetation growing. Some frost-free sites are available on sun-facing slopes or in small clearings in tall forests, which are good spots for settlements. Key Takeaways – Humid cool climates are rich with biodiversity in forests, meadows, and bodies of water. – Houses need to be stable with a focus on providing warmth in winter. – Frosts, ranging from snow to frozen ground, are common, as are fogs along the coastal regions. – Winters are wet, and summers are dry. – Most growth occurs in spring and summer, droughts may occur in mid-late summer, fall has a smaller growth spurt, and winter is dormant. – Aspect and shade can extend frost, but frost-free areas are possible on sun-facing slopes and small forest clearings.

4.1.5. 12.5 – Soils [VIDEO]

4.1.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Generalize a soil profile for the humid cool climate - Describe the interaction of plants, livestock, and staple crops in this environment BRIEF OVERVIEW This climate has good soils because forests, prairies, and meadows create plenty of humus. If we look after them, returning material to them, they’ll stay good and stable. They do tend towards acidity due to water, especially in areas with poor drainage, and they have large areas of mineralization caused by glacier activity, which offers plenty of rock dust. Waterways are well-oxygenated with plenty of fish. Plow agriculture, crop rotation, silage, and rest periods were all developed in this landscape. Livestock are housed and bedded in the winters, and their manures are spread over fields. Root crops supply the bulk of winter storage, and the common grains include barley, oats, wheat, and rye. The well-structured soil makes for great cropping. Key Takeaways – Soils have very good humus content from the forests, prairies, and meadows. – Soils tend to be acidic because of the abundance of water. – Large areas have been mineralized by glacier activity. – Livestock are housed in the winter, with their manure spread over fields. – Root crops and grains, such as barley, oats, wheat, and rye, are used for winter storage. – The good soil structure provides great crops, and these soils can be maintained easily.

4.1.6. 12.6 – Landform and Water Conservation [VIDEO]

4.1.6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain why we should concentrate on landforms and water conservation in this climate - Define the key point, noting its importance - Outline how water plays its role in our whole system designs - List the duties that water has to fulfill BRIEF OVERVIEW We have to concentrate on landforms and water conservation in this climate because it is ideally suited to open waters. The soils usually have good clay content, which good for building dams. There are a great variety of plants and animals that need to interact with water. We can drought-proof properties while providing gravity-flow irrigation and fire control. This is a rounded landscape with a distinctive S-profile found in valleys, where the slope goes from convex to concave. The point at which this change occurs in the valley is called the key point, and it is the highest point to begin controlling water. From the key point, the game begins, and fencing needs to compromise with these landscape patterns rather than being in square lines. Our designs are whole system designs, beginning with first and second order streams out on the extremities. As designers, we start by addressing water, followed with access points that harmonize with water, and led to sensible options for structural positions. Above key points, we have to create hard surface runoff for catchments, but below the key point, we have the ability to receive and distribute water, leading water flows on contour to extend their journey downhill. Water has many duties to fulfill. We use it to irrigate crops and forests, water animals, and raise fish and aquatic plants. We have the potential to produce energy with turbines and waterwheels. We need it for drinking, cooking, and cleaning. We also shouldn’t forget its recreational uses, nor the simple fact that water bodies are beautiful. KEY TAKEAWAYS – Landforms and water conservation are important in this climate, where open bodies of water are possible. – The landscape is rounded, with a shallow S-curve in valleys as they change from convex to concave slopes. – The key point is the spot where slopes change from convex to concave, and it is the highest point to begin controlling water. – Systems should be design holistically, utilizing first and second order streams at the extremities. – Designs should begin with water, access routes harmonizing with it, and structures fitting into the logical spaces. – Water has many duties: irrigation, aquatic life, energy, drinking, cooking, cleaning, recreation, and beauty.

4.1.7. 12.7 – Settlement and House Design [VIDEO]

4.1.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize heating as the vast percentage of energy used - Give examples of designs to passively heat homes - Describe the windows, walls, dimensions, and doorways of an efficient home BRIEF OVERVIEW Heating of houses and water are 80% of the energy used in this climate, so designs can save more energy here than anywhere else. Houses should be solid, with good thermal mass for retained heat and thoughtful orientation. Well-designed settlements can also conserve energy for individual houses by being positioned on sun-facing thermal belts with east-west streets and north-south housing. There should be forests above settlements with high water storage. Houses should be close together, and two-to-four stories high is the most efficient for insulation. The settlements should be in sun-trap windbreaks crescent-ed away from the poles. Vine trellised walls provide insulation, and deciduous trees give shade in summer and allow sunlight through in winter. Houses should be sited on stable ground above flood and frost lines, and full winter sun is a very useful thing. House designs here can get very specific. Windows should be double-glazed, with the sun side of the house having between 30-100% windows, none on the west side, and only small windows to the east and pole sides. Houses should be longer east-to-west and no deeper than two-rooms north-to-south, which can be divided by a thermal mass wall to trap the sun’s heat in the winter. Attached glass houses on the sun side can be used as “outdoor” spaces in the winter, and clear-story windows in the roof can illuminate the back of the house. Floors and subfloors should be designed to store heat, and roof and wall insulation also help to trap heat. Double air-lock entries are useful for preventing heat from escaping. Barns and food stores can be joined to the house to prevent having to go outside, as well as act as weather buffers. It also very important to consider plumbing and irrigation pipes, which can freeze and burst. With the right design, it is easy to have a comfortable living space in this very fertile climate. KEY TAKEAWAYS – Heating housing and water account for 80% of the energy use in humid cool and cold climates. – Houses need to be solid, have thermal mass, and be oriented well. – Settlement design can also help to conserve energy for individual houses. – Full winter sun is an important part of home designs. – Homes should have double-glazed windows, primarily on the sun-facing side, allowing winter sun in and angling summer sun out. – Thermal mass walls, attached glass houses, floor/sub-floor insulation, and roof and wall insulation all help to keep homes warm.

4.1.8. 12.8 – Suntrap [ANMTN]

4.1.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Suntrap designs offset cool polar winds by facing the sun in an arching shape, sheltering the house, animals, gardens, and crops. Productivity increases due to reduced stress on the system. Dense deciduous vines and trees on the sun side of the house block out sun in the summer, when they are in leaf, and allow warming sun in the winter, when they are bare.

4.1.9. 12.9 – Stepped Aspect of Settlement [ANMTN]

4.1.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW High density urban design can be solar energy efficient with a stepped aspect of settlement, allowing for each dwelling to receive full sun, and this heat is a main priority.

4.1.10. 12.10 – Cool Climate House Design [ANMTN]

4.1.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Houses between 30 and 60 degrees in the northern or southern hemisphere should have insulated roof space. They should have overhanging eves, allowing winter sun to penetrate double-glazed windows, while not allowing mid-day summer sun to enter the house. The sun wall should be 30 to 60 percent glass, roughly matching the latitude, and there should be no windows on the western wall. There should be a separate mud room entrance at the back as a practical room for coming in from the garden. There should be insulated footings to encapsulate the soil beneath the house as a thermal heat mass.

4.2. Modules 12.11 to 12.20

4.2.1. 12.11 – The Home Garden [VIDEO]

4.2.1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Summarize the cool temperate approach to the home garden - List several tricks for getting more out of these gardens BRIEF OVERVIEW Home gardens emphasize storage crops for the winter period, a time of dormancy, and here there is a big difference between the Mediterranean and coldest parts of the climate. Regardless, techniques are much the same as the humid tropics, with plenty of mulch, except there is no need for over-story shade but rather a push to get more sun. These gardens have more focus towards annual crops than in the tropics, with cycles starting fast in the small, quick-growing spring gardens, and the later season focuses on larger harvests of storage crop. Cold areas, cellars, ash pits, and other preservation methods are crucial. There are many tricks for getting more from gardens. Mulched crops will likely have problems with slugs and snails, so it is important to have techniques for trapping them and creating habitats for predators. Glasshouses can be used to get seedlings started early, and many plants can be started indoors. Here we work to perennialize annual crops, and most trellis crops are annuals that we don’t use for shading the garden. There is a plentiful berry crop to be had. All seeds should be heirloom and preferably locally developed, avoiding hybrids and seeking out heritage varieties. The garden should be planted to the site, climate, and region, and we should work towards producing our own seed and extending valuable species from cuttings. Then, we have to share our resources and experiences to advance the system as a whole. KEY TAKEAWAYS – Home gardens have to emphasize storage crops for the dormant winters. – There will be more focus on annual crops than in the tropical climates, but the gardening techniques are very similar to the humid tropics. – Spring is cultivated with quick-growing crops, and storage crops get attention later in the season. – Mulched crops will likely have issues with snails and slugs, which must be addressed. – Glasshouses and inside spaces can help to give plants an early start. – We should use local heirloom seeds, focusing on heritage rather than hybrid species.

4.2.2. 12.12 – Trellis Systems [ANMTN]

4.2.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Trellis systems can greatly increase crop production by utilizing vertical space and controlling climate. Leaves follow the sun during the day and change their angle with the seasons, making them efficient insulators, so buildings can use deciduous sunscreens and roof trellises. Natural trellises onto trees, particular legumes, will produce a crop. Water trellises over ponds, canals, or chinampas are very productive and benefit the water system itself. A “fedge” is a food hedge, which can also act as a windbreak and will be stronger in a zig-zag pattern. Mulch basket trellises work well for beans, tomatoes, and cucumbers. Bramble trellises with a metal drum base, a mesh column, and a wheel top gets thorny brambles up and cascading for easy harvesting and pruning. A mortlock trellis folds down for pruning and harvest. Tipi trellises can be mulched in the middle and used for pole beans, or they can have a central pole with strained wire for permanent crops. A hop trellis, with strained wire between two poles, is another option.

4.2.3. 12.13 – House and Garden Layout [ANMTN]

4.2.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A good layout can provide full nutrition and an excellent climate, with very low maintenance. A trellis crop and well-placed kitchen can help to establish cool spaces. There should be a compost area and worm farm for fertilizer. A small poultry pen can be included. An herb spiral, keyhole beds, and path-side picking greens should be close to the kitchen, and beyond that, there should be a main crop garden and fruiting hedges. There should be a mixed legume boundary hedge and a mixed fruit tree food forest.

4.2.4. 12.14 – Berry Fruits [VIDEO]

4.2.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Relate where and how berries like to grow, including soil and natural fertilization - Discuss setting up cage cultivation for berries - Explain how to control blackberry brambles BRIEF OVERVIEW There are berries for every niche in this climate, with something that works in high altitudes down to something that works along coasts. Berries will fill clearings in the forests and grow along their edges, with small trees germinating under the brambles and eventually branching up above them. They like anaerobic soils with plenty of acidity, rich humus, thick mulch, and high ammonia (bird) manure. Berry brambles will protect young trees growing within them, and once trees establish and fruit above them, animals will come in to get the fallen fruit and trample out the berries. We can use this natural occurrence in curated bio-mimicry. Berries attract many species of birds, and crops may have to be caged to protect them. In the cages, we can develop berry-oriented polycultures with raised beds to grow crop, espalier fruit trees, strawberries, and seasonal rambling crops. The area can have drip lines for irrigation, deep mulch for pH adjustment, and mounds for adequate drainage. It can be fertilized with liquid manures and worm castings, as well as have borders of comfrey. Quail and small insectivorous birds can be part of the system, and it can also include small ponds and rock piles for predatory habitat. Pruning and mulching will be part of maintaining the crop. Outside a caged environment, birds can be deterred with color reflective tape, tessellated strings, hawk kites, and cannon blasts or drums, but this should only be done when the berries are in season because birds will become accustomed to them. Blackberries can get very rampant, so controlling the brambles can be a challenge. However, all vegetation will die when it isn’t allowed to grow leaves, so with regular discipline this can eradicate them. As well, cattle short on feed can be sent in to trample the brambles by putting forage bails in the middle of them or, for a longer sequence, planting tree whips from fruit trees that will mature in four to six years, dropping a crop that will attract the animals. Another method is cutting narrow corridors into the brambles and planting fruit trees in clear areas of approximately one meter. Then, they will eventually outperform the berries, natural edge plants, and shade them out of their niche. KEY TAKEAWAYS – Berries have a niche in every part of the humid cool to cold climate. – They like anaerobic acidic soils, rich in humus, with thick mulch, and high ammonia manure, likely from birds. – Because birds love berries, crops may have to be grown in caged polycultures. – Outside of cages, birds can be deterred with reflective tape, strings, hawk kites, and blasts. – Blackberries can be controlled by preventing leaf growth, attracting cattle to trample them, and/or planting fruit trees to shade them out.

4.2.5. 12.15 – Cage Culture [ANMTN]

4.2.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Intensive organic fruit can provide a modest living for one person with a ten-by-twenty-meter cage system. Quail, small insectivorous birds, lizards (rockeries) and frogs (ponds) can be included for pest control. Cage mesh should be 5-15 mm with the sides at least three-meters high. Brambles and espalier trees are grown on tension wires between posts with small fruit in the rows between with cover crops of low-lying fruit, such as melons and strawberries. Each cropping row should be on a mound with an underground drainpipe and a drip line on the surface. Footpaths should be fully mulched.

4.2.6. 12.16 – Self-Pick System Layout [ANMTN]

4.2.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A self-pick system needs raised beds with drainage pipes that can be reached without walking on the beds beneath them. They should have drip line irrigation systems. The footpaths should be extra wide, either deep mulch or planted in clover and kept mowed.

4.2.7. 12.17 – Orchards [VIDEO]

4.2.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List several varieties of productive trees found in this climate - Identify the ideal sites for growing food forests - Define guilds and note the different elements, plants and otherwise, included in them - Generalize how to use thoughtful design to prevent pest problems - Recognize the beneficial roles that animals can play in orchards BRIEF OVERVIEW There is a lot of productive tree diversity available in this climate. Pome fruits (apples/pears), stone fruits (cherries/nectarines/peaches), nuts (chestnuts/hazelnuts), berries (mulberries), and many others are available throughout the area. The goal is to find those varieties that work well in our specific areas, selecting species known for hardiness in organic cultivation. Then, we also have to select good sites, with sun-facing, well-drained slopes as the ideal but slightly shaded, late-blooming slopes as a possibility for frost protection. Guilds are how we gain an advantage. Grasses are troublesome to orchards, as their roots dominate that space and they create bacterial- rather than fungal- dominated soils. However, we can use diverse ground cover to overcome the grasses. Spring bulbs help early on and die out in late spring. Big, leafy plants like comfrey provide lots of minerals to the soil surface, as do spike-rooted plants like dandelions. Other plants, like the umbelliferae family, attract predatory and pollinating insects. Nitrogen-fixing plants add fertilization and mulch material. Plants like marigolds help to control pests in the soil. Soft-foliage ground covers, such as nasturtium, protect the soil and give predatory animals habitat, and productive windbreaks can do the same. Other features, such as bird perches, small ponds, and rockeries invite beneficial animals into the system. Thoughtful design reduces pest problems. It begins with choosing disease-resistant stock, which will allow some areas to simply be wild production, with little to no pruning. There needs to be continuous refinement of habitat interaction for beneficial animals in the forests. Legume tree interplants will maintain high soil quality (for healthy trees), and windrow planting will reduce stress. Fallen fruit should either be gathered for composting, or it can be used for for animal foraging. Domestic animals can be part of these forests once they are established. This can start with small chickens that can range through the understory. These birds can have a house that connects to multiple orchard ranges, allowing resting periods, and they can actually forage their own food if average egg production is satisfactory. Generally, 120 to 240 chicken per hectare is the right amount, but conditions must be monitored carefully, judging the functionality based on groundcover density. When the trees are full-sized (or nearly so), larger animals—sheep and cattle—can be introduced, but they must be monitored very carefully. The larger animals are particular good for autumn foraging, when lots of fruit is on the ground. With cautious interactions, this can help to build permanent, productive forests. KEY TAKEAWAYS – The humid cool to cold climate has a huge diversity of productive trees, including pome fruits, stone fruits, nuts, berries, and more. – Food forests should be established with species suited to the climate and proven to be naturally hardy. – Sites are ideally on sun-facing, well-drained slopes. – Guilds are a great advantage as they get rid of grasses. – Guilds should include plants like spring bulbs, mineral accumulators, insectivorous plants, nitrogen-fixing plants, pest control plants, soft foliage groundcovers, and windbreaks. – Features like small ponds, rockeries, and bird perches provide predatory animals with habitats. – With careful monitoring, animals can be active, beneficial contributors to food forest designs, after the forests have established.

4.2.8. 12.18 – Orchard of Stone and Pome Fruit [ANMTN]

4.2.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW An orchard of stone and pome fruits — plum, peach, apple, pear, medlar — can be inter-planted in rows with tree legumes. This should have a swale just above, and the understory can be planted with flowers, bulbs, small fruits, comfrey, and nasturtiums. There can also be intercrops of corn, beans, and potatoes. Hedgerows of fruit, nut, leguminous, and insectary trees should surround the orchard and will block at cold winds while remaining open to the full sun.

4.2.9. 12.19 – Farm Forestry [VIDEO]

4.2.9.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Name a number of the ways tree systems improve the landscape and productivity - Give examples of the many job opportunities now arising around perennial systems BRIEF OVERVIEW Nowadays, it is becoming more widely accepted that tree systems are essential to farming landscapes because they provide many advantages. They help with erosion control, particularly on slopes of more than 18 degrees. They provide trickle-down nutrients, stability along water courses and ridgelines, and forage for domestic and wild animals. They offer a range of products, including timber and food. Forests shelter the landscape, and 20% of the land devoted to sheltering causes no loss of production. This also helps to moderate drought and cold. There is a huge transition for annual to perennial production, driven largely by urban activists in the green movement. Forest and aquatic products are becoming sought-after products. Forest services — teachers, consultants, providers — are now in demand, and there is a call for many things to establish forests. Useful clumping grass, locally viable berries, quality fish stocks, suitable poultry, support species, hedgerow species, reforestation assemblies, pollution mop crops — all of these niches are part of this development. Then, the marketing of new crops from the systems can be cooperative, establishing a production “fingerprint” for the bio-region. KEY TAKEAWAYS – Tree systems are essential to the farming landscape. – Forests prevent erosion, provide nutrients, give stability, produce forage, shelter, and moderate climates. – There is now a transition from annual to perennial production, with many niche forest and aquatic products. – Marketing of new crops can become a cooperative thing, establishing a production identity for each bio-region.

4.2.10. 12.20 – Farm Forestry; Timber Crop in Pasture and Woodlots [VIDEO]

4.2.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Realize the many productive things that are possible through timber crops and woodlots - Explain how timber crops can be fostered by communities on difficult lands BRIEF OVERVIEW We can grow timber crop on pastures and even use them to help with dividing grazing land. Young trees can be fenced for protection, or their fields can be cut for hay until they are large enough. Woodlots are productive forests with diverse yields, including bamboo for both forage and timber, amongst other things. Firewood is important and can be acquired with two-to-seven year cycles of coppiced trees, chosen for both fuel value and ability to regrow. Pole wood is valuable for fencing and furniture, while less valuable timber can be used for indoor items. Other products, such as fiber, distillations, oil, and resins, are all also part of forest production. Fine quality timber can be planted on awkward country because they are long-term, and mixed age stands can be maintained as permanent forests. Communal efforts, with knowledge passed down, can create a shared resource, both for harvests and income. These should be polyculture forests of six to 30 species, with outputs like fruit, nuts, animals forage, honey, stick, and wildlife habitat being part of the design. Any reasonably large farm of 50 hectares or more has the potential for this, but large single-specie forest for industrial production will not work for the long-term benefit of a community. Instead, permanent forests can be established with short-term specialty crops as yields during the process. KEY TAKEAWAYS – Timber can be grown in pastures, with young trees protected and woodlots diverse. – Firewood production can come from cycles with specially chosen coppiced trees. – Many products—lumber, pole wood, oil, resins, fiber, distillations—can come from forestry. – Mixed-age, polycultural stands can be communally maintained as permanent forests, providing fruit, nuts, forage, honey, stick, and habitat to share.

4.3. Modules 12.21 to 12.30

4.3.1. 12.21 – Small Forest Farm [ANMTN]

4.3.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A small, intensively managed forest farm should have a food self-sufficiency garden near the house and small fruits on the inside edge of the forest. A coppiced woodlot should surround the orchards. This can be followed by a layer of high value nut and fine timber trees. The final, outer area should be mixed aged stands with small forest clearings. Fungi production and seed collection are also part of this system.

4.3.2. 12.22 – Small Component Free-Range Forage Systems [VIDEO]

4.3.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List the considerations when choosing animals for developing free-range forage systems - List the elements that we need to provide for animals in free-range systems BRIEF OVERVIEW Free-range forage systems, where animals go out and come back on their own, can be done with small components. We need to understand these animals in order to create a good system, in which they will want to return home. There are many things to consider. We have to choose appropriate breeds and put them in flock sizes that work best for them. We have to understand how the animals forage and what sort of soil and landscape profile they fit in. We need to know what are the right ratios of males to females and their general ranging behavior. Then, we can design systems to make the animals happy so that they produce for us. We should include the best forage options for them to get adequate nutrients. We should consider their interactions with other elements, both good and bad, so we can place them sensibly. And, we are going to need to provide suitable housing and watering points. Finally, we can introduce the animals, observe them, and monitor their behavior. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Free-range forage systems should be done with small animals only. - We have to choose appropriate breeds, flock sizes, forage, landscapes, and gender ratios. - Designs should supply adequate forage options, interacting elements, housing, and watering points. - Once animals are introduced, we need to observe and monitor their behaviors.

4.3.3. 12.23 – Small Component Free-Range Forage Systems – Bee Range [VIDEO]

4.3.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Outline the foraging range for bees - Describe the ideal environment we can create for bees - Provide tips for maximizing honey production BRIEF OVERVIEW Bees are an obvious free range element, but we have to set up systems to make the most of their products. Bees make more than honey. Other products include wax, pollen, propolis, and royal jelly. They also perform services as pollinators. They will work within a 2.5-kilometer radius of hives but almost always at least 100 meters away from it, meaning they won’t pollinate much within that range. Sites need to be sheltered but not too much. There should be a rich range for bees to harvest from, with clumps of plants rather than scattered, and it’s good to know that bees will only harvest from one type of flower per trip. Wind limits foraging, so hedges can really aid production. Good sources of water are necessary, and they can be designed specially to be bee-friendly. Hive temperatures should ideally be at 21 degrees Celsius, which means they’ll like need insulation in winter and shading in summer. It’s easy to get a local list of honey plants for each season, which can lead to specialty honey productions. Additionally, it’s important not to mix or heat honey, as this will lessen quality and kill enzymes. Pollen traps can be set up at particular times of year for a second harvest. And, the increased pollination of crops by bees will significantly increase yields. KEY TAKEAWAYS – Bees are a free range element that provide many products and services. – Bees work within a 2.5-km radius from the hive and usually at least 100 meters away from it. – Sites should be sheltered with clumped plant life, hedges for windbreaks, designed water sources, and locally selected honey plants. – Increased pollination from bees will dramatically increase crop production.

4.3.4. 12.24 – Ideal Bee Farm [ANMTN]

4.3.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A well-designed bee farm includes crosswind forage hedge rows for flight efficiency and shelter for hives. Bee products include not only honey but also wax, pollen, propolis, and royal jelly, and bees perform the service of pollination. Bees will work within a 2.5-kilometer radius from the hive, but they prefer to fly at least 100 meters to forage. Bees prefer to harvest the same species from clumps rather than scattered sources, as they will only use one type a flower on each flight. Propolis and pollen specialist flowering species for different times can be dotted throughout the farm, and orchards, small fruits, and herbs can produce well with guaranteed pollination.

4.3.5. 12.25 – Small Component Free-Range Forage Systems – Poultry Range [VIDEO]

4.3.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Differentiate between the two main types of chickens: light and heavy - Outline production expectations and habitat requirements for healthy chickens BRIEF OVERVIEW Poultry are a smaller range element, and chickens are often the gateway animals into animal production. There are two many types of chickens: light and heavy. The smaller birds originate from the Malaysian jungle, and they tend to be flighty, bad mothers with white eggs and a sensitivity to cold and wind. They have long legs, four toes, light feathering, and full combs. They prefer light sandy soils with an alkaline pH level. The heavy birds, from China with a detour through Europe, don’t fly much, are good mothers, and lay brown eggs. They are cold and wind hardy, and they have lots of feathers, five toes, and short combs. They can handle heavy clay soils with acidity. There are crosses between these two types, with between 60-100 breeds to choose from. Free-range laying hens produce between 130 and 150 eggs a year, with those averages going up to 200 in optimal conditions. They produce well for four to six years, after which the rates go down. Naturally, these birds have flocks of 20 to 30 chickens with only a couple of roosters, so this is likely the most efficient situation. Light birds forage better, supplying most of their own food, but heavy birds will need some supplemental feed (seeds, grain, legumes, mill waste, etc.), especially in colder seasons. Grain can be cut and thrown in whole. Poultry will mix very well with orchards and dairies, feeding on the maggots and insects that occur, so when partnered, these systems will benefit one another. KEY TAKEAWAYS – Poultry is a smaller range element, and usually chickens are the gateway animal. – There are two types of chicken: light and heavy. – Light chickens are flighty foragers that don’t like chillier environments. – Heavy chickens tend to not fly, are good mothers, and need some feed supplements. – There 60-100 different breeds of chickens to choose from, and this should be done thoughtfully. – Free-range laying hens can give between 130 and 200 eggs a year per bird. – Chickens partner well with orchards and dairies.

4.3.6. 12.26 – Chicken Pen System [ANMTN]

4.3.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A stationary chicken pen tractor works for the health of the birds, vegetables, soil, and small fruits. With appropriate sizing of a flock, an area can be completely cleared of weeds in only six weeks, with the soil well-manured, weed seeds eaten, and pest cycles broken. The flock can be moved to the next garden, and the conditioned garden can be raked, de-compacted, and planted to a crop. After each crop is finished, the garden will get a rest period before the chickens return on the 60-week cycle.

4.3.7. 12.27 – Chicken Orchard Pens [ANMTN]

4.3.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW An ideal poultry system integrated with forage crops and fruit trees should have the house and home garden centrally located, surrounded by a green zone for the chickens. Heavy breed birds should be enclosed in smaller pens, with some of them resting and others planted to forage crop. Light breeds should be in outer, larger pens with fruit trees, with some of them resting and planted to forage crop between the trees. An outer green crop zone encircling the system then completes all nutritional requirements of the poultry.

4.3.8. 12.28 – Small Component Free-Range Forage Systems - Poultry Density [VIDEO]

4.3.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Provide the per-hectare statistics for raising poultry - Explain how poultry interacts with elements, including effects on population density - List the requirements for raising a healthy flock of chickens - Describe the process of making compost with a flock of chickens - Realize that other poultry will be raised similarly to chickens but require adjustments BRIEF OVERVIEW Monitoring populations of poultry is very important. It is possible to have 800-900 birds per hectare (without stress) if they are housed in small flocks of 30-50 birds. Average household flocks are 20-30 birds, often penned and given a deep mulch litter to scratch, which will provide shredded, deseeded, pest-free mulch for gardens. Around the pens, mineral-rich plants can be grown to cut and thrown in. At 800 chickens per hectare, there will be no forage left for other animals. At 350-400 per hectare, sheep and cattle can share the range. At 120-180 per hectare, an orchard’s windfall will be cleared and the trees will be fertilized. Twelve to sixteen chicken tractors on a hectare will knock nearly all the weeds out, preparing the ground for planting vegetable crops or fruit trees; then, two or three months prior to the chickens returning, forage plants can be cultivated. Hedges can also be planted for cut forage, and there are many trees with prolific seeds and berries. A flock of chickens will dismantle a compost pile in a week, and if each week that pile is put back together, the compost will be ready in roughly five weeks. This can create a weekly cycle, and as the weeks pass, the chickens will be less interested in the older piles and spend more time on the newer piles. The ideal compost pile for this systems begins with one-third bedding mulch, one-third manure from large animals, and one-third kitchen scraps. If the chickens are in this system, turning the compost piles five times each, they shouldn’t require any additional food. Other necessities for chickens include dry dust baths, water, and shelter. The dust baths can be improved by adding beneficial materials like dried bracken ferns, neem, and grit. Water sources should be clean, which requires special attention with chickens, and a clove of garlic can be added each week to provide a health tonic. Shelter should be available at night for protection from predators. Thirteen hectares with 3000 birds can create a full, sustainable system for egg and meat production. Duties will include culling birds for meat, cleaning water, watching predators, maintaining infrastructure, breeding, and so on. Chicken is a universal domestic meat that doesn’t require refrigerators. Ducks, geese, guinea fowl, and turkeys can all be raised similarly, with slight variations to meet the needs of each bird. KEY TAKEAWAYS – 800-900 chickens per hectare is possible if the birds are housed in small flocks of 30-50, but there will be no forage left for other animals. – Average household flocks are around 20-30 chickens, penned with deep mulch litter on the floor. – 350-400 chickens per hectare will allow for shared grazing with sheep and cattle. – 120-180 chickens per hectare will help to maintain an orchard, cleaning up fallen fruit and fertilizing. – 12-16 chicken tractors will eliminate weeds on a hectare and prepare the land for cultivation. – Chickens can be used in weekly cycles to create compost. – Besides food, chickens require dust baths, clean water, and shelter from predators. – Ducks, geese, guinea fowl, and turkeys can all be raised similarly with small changes for each species’s needs.

4.3.9. 12.29 – Diagrammatic Pen Layout [ANMTN]

4.3.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Mixed species on a range is good for animal health and soil fertility. Forage trees should be clumped in pastures with hangover forage along boundaries. Forage species, pasture grasses, and animal conditions need to be closely monitored. Cows can follow goats, and sheep can follow cows; then, sheep can be followed by poultry. Ultimately, the pasture can be cut, chiseled, seeded, and rested. 15-18 pens with 4-6 animal species with mixed forage stands works well. Goats graze 60% pasture/40% woody weeds. They can be followed by horses, more selective eaters of pasture and hangover forage. Horses can be followed by cows, which graze a larger selection of pasture and hangover forage. Sheep then graze primarily on grasses lower to the ground. Finally, chickens will spread manure and eat parasite larva.

4.3.10. 12.30 – The Lawn [VIDEO]

4.3.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Summarize the history of lawns and their current energy audit - Criticize lawns as impractical energy wasters impeding localized food production BRIEF OVERVIEW Lawns are a dominate feature of tidiness in urban development, but they take a lot of time, money, water, and environmental pollution to remain so. Originally, lawns were grazed by sheep, and later, they were developed into vast landscapes with isolated trees, water systems, and views. Walled food gardens were kept out of sight, and this set-up has remained today. Those with money have no need for functional landscapes. Now, however, with the information age, we are aware of many crises with the environment and food systems, so we are beginning to energy audit our activities. This is redefining wealth as an assessment of the condition of our environment, and it is becoming trendy to be sustainable. While some lawns, such as sports fields and entertainment areas, may have purpose, lawns everywhere are not practical or responsible. They consume more energy per square meter than broad-scale agriculture. Communities could actually produce all of their food using the same amount of land and resources. Unfortunately, we still have deserts and coastal towns using groundwater for lawns and even building factories to take salts out of water for this purpose. Some lawns — with prostrate groundcovers, for grazing, with hand-mowed maintenance — can be justified, but these systems are not natural. Nature has prairies and grasslands with mixed species and large animals grazing on them. This is not the same as lawns. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Lawns are dominant features of tidiness in urban developments. - They use more energy and resources that broad-scale agriculture. - Communities could produce all of their food on the same area and resources used to maintain lawns.

4.4. Modules 12.31 to 12.40

4.4.1. 12.31 – Grasslands [VIDEO]

4.4.1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recount the origins of treeless grasslands and how they have remained un-forested - Contrast the biomass distribution of grasslands and forests - Outline the typical makeup of a pasture (artificial grassland) in permaculture designs BRIEF OVERVIEW There are many types of treeless grasslands in this climate, and most were created as the last ice age retreated. Though the soils and the climate have to the potential to grow forests, fire from lightning and humans have prevented it. Different kinds of grasslands include heathland, the pampas, herbal ley, steppe, meadows, and prairies, and traditional people managed these with very careful fire sequences, benefitting animal herds. However, when the fire-managed balance is lost, such as with converted pastures, fire-loving perennials that are low in nutrients take over, reducing protein levels and eroding soil. Above ground, grasslands look prolific, but there is much more mass (nearly 97%) under the ground, where as with forest these ratios are nearer to fifty-fifty. Consequently, a leveled forest will take decades to recovers, but a grassland may only take weeks. However, trees offer other services that stabilize the landscape, and 50% of their mass is on offer, instead of only three percent of grasslands. In general, these grasslands exist between other systems, often as extended edges along forests. Historically, people have favored grasslands for agriculture, though wildlife naturally produces much more protein. If we hadn’t have changed the system but learn to manage them, there would be much higher production. In fact, large numbers of our vegetables also originated from these grassland, and there was lots of other valuable life, such as the burrowers, which help to create deep, spongy soils. For our systems today, we need artificial grasslands as pastures, and these need to include trees. They have to be carefully managed and supplemented with a browse of hangover forage from trees to extend the systems. Legumes and herbs can be sown with the grasses to improve the soil. A typical system should have about 25% of pasture in a fallow year, 15-25% in permanent pasture, and 50-60% in crop, and this should be rotated to maintain fertility. In really cold climates, animals can be housed for nearly 200 days a year, which can add the advantage of fertilizer. KEY TAKEAWAYS - There are many types of treeless grasslands: heathland, pampas, herbal ley, steppe, meadows, etc. - These grasslands have not converted to forests because of burning caused by lightning and people. - Grasslands are nearly all underground and recover quickly, whereas forest are only half underground and take much longer to recover. - Without fire-managed balance, grasslands quickly convert to fire-loving weeds with less nutrition. - Wild systems provided much more protein than do our imported animals for agriculture. - Pastures should be artificial grasslands with trees added to the system for foraging and stability. - 25% of pasture should be fallow, 15-25% permanent pasture, and 50-60% into crop production, and this should be rotated to maintain fertility.

4.4.2. 12.32 – Grasslands: Management of Livestock on Grassland or Range [VIDEO]

4.4.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain how to provide a sufficient, naturally produced diet for cattle - Summarize a basic rotational grazing plan for preventing overgrazing - List design components for sustainably feeding grazing animals BRIEF OVERVIEW Cattle prefer nutrient dense feed rather than nitrogen bloated grasses. Nitrogen fertilizer has not increased fertility in relation to its cost, and legumes can provide adequate nitrogen naturally. Clover can yield 200 kilos of nitrogen per hectare, and it is actually preferred by cattle. In this case, soil bacteria and algae add protein and are naturally cultured assets in organic soils. Additionally, twenty percent of land can go to shelter without losing yield because it reduces stress on the plants and animals. In degraded systems, cattle will actually destroy trees in search of nutrients, but forest trees combined with mixed grasslands will meet all their needs. Overgrazed systems will become overrun with spiny, poisonous weeds. We blame them for protecting the landscape, but we need to be aware of these living responses as indicators. For example, flat weeds, like dandelions, indicate soil compaction and/or poor drainage. We can then address these issues with animal and plant management. Instead (of overgrazing), two-to-nine-year rotational grazing with animals will imitate migrating herds to make a sustainable system: Fifteen to eighteen fields with an 18-20 month rotation working on 20-30 day grazing periods. Fields can then be reconditioned with chisel plow key line systems that are applied only when necessary. Many components can make animals systems work more sustainably. Cut forage and feed can work well with housed animals when pastures shouldn’t be grazed, and all manure, bedding, and runoff can be used to fertilize the fields. Mixed livestock can be grazed in succession such that each species prepares the land for the next. Meadows are diverse with grasses, rushes, sedges, legumes, bulbs, tubers, forbs, and flat weeds, which can have many uses, and the systems are maintained by pollinators, browsers, burrowers, and predators spreading seed. Thus, our systems should be polycultural, and wildlife and water management should be instrumental in maintaining the system, doing most of the work. Forested, steep slopes provide nutrient leaching to the valleys below them, which creates grazing pastures. Aware that there are generally two periods of grass deficit, late summer and winter, our systems can include hangover forage and fermented feed for pasture relief. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Nitrogen fertilizer has not provided adequate fertility or feed, especially with relation to its cost. - Leguminous plants and forests can help to make pasture systems more sustainable and nutritious. - Overgrazed systems will result in noxious weeds, but we have to not blame the weeds and read them as living responses to what is happening. - Sustainable systems require grazing rotations and careful, observational management. Other elements help complete sustainable grazing systems: cut forage, mixed livestock successions, diverse plant species, location, hangover forage, and fermented feed.

4.4.3. 12.33 – Grasslands: Revitalisation of Compacted Soils and Pastures [VIDEO]

4.4.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Relate how to revitalize a landscape using a chisel plow and specially selected seeds BRIEF OVERVIEW Methods for how to do this were largely covered in Module 8, and they involved seeding using a chisel plow. The plow should create lines roughly six to eight centimeters deep and half a meter apart, preserving the roots of the existing plants. Then, diverse seeds for deep-rooting, drought-resistant grasses and woody forage can be planting in the lines and stimulate with compost, compost tea, trace minerals, water-retaining gels and/or root sets. This method stimulates revitalization without disturbing what’s already in place, and diverse elements with further stabilize the system. The same method can be used in waterlogged country, where rushes tend to take over, and here the same treatment will help to combat saturation. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Compacted soils and worn-out pastures can be revitalized with chisel plowing and appropriate planting. - Seeds should be chosen based on its ability to perform well in the environment. - Plantings in chisel plow lines can be stimulated with compost, teas, and gels. - Waterlogged country can be treated the same way to deal with saturation.

4.4.4. 12.34 – Bi-Modal Growth Curve of Grasses [ANMTN]

4.4.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW In humid cool climates, there is often a bi-modal growth curve for grasses. There are two periods of deficit: Later summer occurs from drought, when grasses dry out and drop seed, and the winter is the result of cold. Summer forage trees can help to compensate this. Unirrigated tagasaste (legume trees) equals the forage production of irrigated alfalfa, and contour strips of trees through pastures help to keep the grasses moisture during the summer dry period.

4.4.5. 12.35 – Rangelands [VIDEO]

4.4.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Outline why rangelands without inputs are far more productive than cultivated pastures - Point out the right choices to balance a rangeland system - Illustrate the basics of recovering damaged rangelands - Identify ideal placement for rangelands and how they interact with other systems BRIEF OVERVIEW In humid, temperate climates, rangelands produce more protein than improved pastures, and they do so with no inputs, no damage, no soil loss, and no fertility loss. This achieved by diverse guilds, including many small animals. No livestock can replicate this production, and lots of external inputs are required to get anywhere close. We tend to only measure domestic production, when wild animals often provide more and improve the system, while we spend money and resources trying to eradicate them. Instead, we need to study these rangelands and emulate their systems of haphazard management. Building successful systems can be improved with sound choices. Choosing appropriate livestock breeds is crucial, and there needs to be a balance of plant and animal diversity in managed areas, rather than a singular focus on one animal. With a sensible balance, we can the harvest separate yields od singular species. As well, systems — both animals and plants — are dependent on free-standing water, and we can design this. In damaged rangelands, we have to find practical solutions. Browse will go to insects, decreasing the number of livestock, but we could use the insects as fish and/or poultry feed or food themselves. Insects signify and imbalance we need to address. Revitalized plant cover will equal more water soakage and renewed river flows. The water situation can be further improved with fencing that move slight downslope (300-500:1) from valley to ridgeline, where drinking holes can be located. This fencing design will encourage animal tracks to move water towards ridges, which will redistribute them over the landscape. Ideally, upland soils and water should be preserved for more important uses: stabilizing slopes and gravity-fed water for downslope pastures. Rangelands should be on the mid-slopes, with natural predators encourage to help with controlling small animal populations. Then, pastures on the low slopes can be used intensively, being feed from the upland nutrient leaching and gravity irrigation. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Rangelands produce more protein than improved pastures, without inputs or negative impacts. - Wild animals, which we try to eradicate, provide more potential food and system stability than domesticated animals. - For domestication, breed selection, animal and plant diversity, and free-standing water are elements we can control. - Damaged rangelands can be improved with animal diversity, plant cover, and well-placed fencing. - Upland soils and water should be preserved to stabilize slopes and provide gravity-fed irrigation. - Ranges should be on the mid-slopes. - Lowland slopes — with upslope support systems — can be used more intensively.

4.4.6. 12.36 – Different Levels of Browse [ANMTN]

4.4.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Different levels of browse from diverse species makes a more productive range than a selection of only one specie. Juniper, trees, sagebrush, mosses, and forbs produce seed, browse, and roots. A balance of species will out-produce a monoculture’s yield, while keeping the range in better condition.

4.4.7. 12.37 – Fencing Strategy on Cattle Range [ANMTN]

4.4.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Designing fences to create a valley-to-ridge line of flow will quickly compensate the extra cost with fertility over the total landscape. With a fall of 1:300, out to 1:500, cattle tracks will guide water out to ridges, where water points are installed. Straight fences normally accelerate erosion and deplete fertility over time.

4.4.8. 12.38 – Rangelands: The Management of Game Species on Range [VIDEO]

4.4.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize the general tenets for sustainably managing rangeland species - Argue that game animals on rangelands are highly productive with no inputs BRIEF OVERVIEW Firstly, to manage game species, we must be able to assess the variations of species and the number of each. Then, harvesting and careful culling becomes the management, with humans taking the place of the natural predator. Understanding the large level of interactions between these integrated elements is our input into the system, and with it, we can predictably exceed the output of any one specie. We can improve the system on the whole. Long-term data is available to help with managing range systems, and game animals don’t need the inputs of improved pasture. The most efficiently raised systems are on naturally-occurring wild ranges. These provide a better energy audit, with less inputs and more outputs. We have a better understanding of what’s around us. The quality of product is improved, both being natural and more nutrient dense. And, again, the entire ecosystem benefits. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Managing game species starts with assessing what is there and how much of it. - Harvesting and culling, humans replacing natural predators, is how wild game managed. - Managed range systems improve the ecosystem while providing better a quality of product, requiring less energy inputs, and creating a better understanding of the world.

4.4.9. 12.39 – Managing Wildlife [ANMTN]

4.4.9.1. Managing wildlife can provide many benefits. Packrats are worth providing shelter for because they select, clean, and store wild rice seeds, much more than they need. Waterfowl will nest on safe boxes, adding to diversity. Bat boxes will house colonies that provide a rich manure and control insects. House martin nests yield phosphate for crops and help to control mosquitoes.

4.4.10. 12.40 – Cold Climates [VIDEO]

4.4.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Give examples of how cold can be used as energy and/or energy efficiency - List specific design concerns that must be addressed in cold climates - Provide several design ideas that take advantage of this climate - Envision ice as a commodity in permaculture systems BRIEF OVERVIEW In cold climates, we need think of cold as an energy, not a disadvantage but something we can use. Reflections off of snow can be used for heating, snow can be used for insulations, and ice can be used for preservation. Freezing instead of heating can concentrate syrups and salts. Frosts create heaves in bare ground, so we can sow where it is needed. Hibernating animals gather huge surpluses for winter that we can harvest for livestock, and spring snowmelt makes trees sprout for nutrient rich grazing. There are precautions to be considered as well. Pipes freeze unless insulated or buried deep. Roof angles should be sloped enough to shed snow. Houses have to store heat in thermal mass, and glasshouses should be attached to homes for energy-efficient heating and growing.We can use many things to our advantage when setting up our systems. The reflection of white surfaces and heat of dark thermal masses can be utilized to melt areas for early cultivation. Snow traps can open up to the sun, with snow providing insulation towards the poles, to start vegetables early. Half-circle rock walls facing the sun will be warmer inside, and doubly so if they are given glass roofs. Individual plants and small gardens can be covered with glass windows panes to help with warmth before the season. Then, the summer days are long and well-suited to production. Ice is another commodity. Frozen ponds allow us to position and sink things — fish habitat, fish traps, breeding pipes, anchors — where we like. Floating glass houses can prevent freezing directly beneath it, or floating tires with glass covers prevent freezing to providing easy fishing holes. Ice can also be frozen in insulated boxes and stored underground to help in summer. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Elements of the cold climate can be thought of as resources rather than disadvantages. - Special precautions must be made to thwart challenges in the cold climate. - There are many simple techniques to make areas well suited for early cultivation. Ice can a valuable asset when we use it to our advantage.

4.5. Modules 12.41 to 12.50

4.5.1. 12.41 – Bamboo and Straw Lean-To [ANMTN]

4.5.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A bamboo and straw lean-to can extend growing seasons or provide an early start for the coming season. White bark trees, such as birch, will reflect light, stone walls absorb heat, and both will radiate it out and assist an early crop in low-sun latitudes. Snow build-up on the shade side will act as an insulator.

4.5.2. 12.42 – Cold Climates: Ice [VIDEO]

4.5.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Realize the challenges ice presents, and how to deal with those challenges - Point out many ways that snow can be useful with good design BRIEF OVERVIEW Understanding ice is a huge advantage in cold climates. With storage ponds, we need to consider the thickness of ice on top of the ponds, as well as the expansion when it freezes. To avoid freezing, pipes either have to be well insulated, buried a meter or more underground, or have water constantly moving through them. Water tanks either have to be underground or, better yet, put indoors, where they can act as thermal mass heaters. Ice is heavier than snow, so it can compact soils more. However, ice, unlike snow, lets light through, and it can be cut or molded into lenses to focus the heat. Ice molds can also be equipped with an axle and wheels so that large blocks of ice can be easily transported. Snow also offers helpful solutions. It blows in the wind, forming clumps and drifts, which we can catch with hedges, fences, and breaks, causing them to melt where the water is needed. Snowfall insulates and is very reflective, so we can form the earth into reflective dishes that will heat the house by focusing the light on thermal masses. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Understand ice (and snow) is a huge advantage in cold climates. - Water expands when it freezes, so we must be careful with storage ponds and pipes. Ice is heavy and allows light, so we can tap into these qualities for useful outputs. - Snow blows in the wind, so we can use fences and breaks to collect drifts and melt them where we want. - Snow is also very reflective and insulating, so this can be utilized to heat homes.

4.5.3. 12.43 – Expanding Ice in Water Storage [ANMTN]

4.5.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW When storing water in cold climates, it’s important to consider the expanding of ice. Surface water will freeze over winter, with the only available water beneath it, so we need a take-off pipe at the bottom of the storage area. The expanding ice needs to compensated with storage area, sloping the sides to be sure the ice can expand without causing structural problems.

4.5.4. 12.44 – Cold Climates: Snow [VIDEO]

4.5.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Describe the behavior of snow as it falls, collects, and melts on soil - Outline causes of avalanches, destructive elements, and prevention techniques BRIEF OVERVIEW Thin snow cover chills soils quickly, causing rapid heat loss, but thick snow cover is a good insulator. Clean, white snow is nearly 100% reflective, so light doesn’t go into it well. This causes snow to melt from underneath, which can cause the weight of it all to begin to slide, risking an avalanche. If the crust at the top of a layer of snow is disturbed, this also increases the risk. Rocky ground increases the potential for avalanches, as does a thawed stream underneath snow. Once an avalanche starts, it includes mud, stone, and vegetation, but the huge wave of air pressure in front of it is actually the most damaging aspect. Avalanches are moving at six to seven meters a second, and the air in front of them is going up to 30 meters per second. Avalanches can be addressed in several ways. High slope forests help to pin down snow. Essentials should be stored in a tunnel for emergencies. Built splitters can help to break up the mass. Still, no settlement should be beneath a potential avalanche. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Thin layers of snow chill the ground quickly, whereas thick layers of snow insulate the ground. - Thick snow melts from underneath, which makes avalanches a greater risk. - Breaking the crust, snow over rocky terrain, and thawed streams also increase the risk of an avalanche. - Avalanches include mud, stone, vegetation, and very powerful air pressure. - Forests help to pin down snow to prevent avalanches, and built-in splitters can help break up the falling mass. - No settlement should be beneath a potential avalanche.

4.5.5. 12.45 – Snow as a Reflector for House Heating [ANMTN]

4.5.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW We can use snow for house heating by making earth-formed reflectors, like focusing dishes around a house to transfer heat towards it. The heat can then be stored in thermal masses, like water or stone. In summer, the same reflection can be replaced with white gravel or sand.

4.5.6. 12.46 – Cold Climates: Permafrost [VIDEO]

4.5.6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain how to, and why it is important to, maintain permafrost BRIEF OVERVIEW These are areas of permanently frozen ground (in Canada, Russia, and Greenland), and they are kept cold by a layer of peat. If they are cleared of vegetation from burning or overgrazing, it can cause a lot of erosion, and areas will start to sink. Once the peat is removed, the area will begin to thaw very quickly. Permafrost goes down 400 meters, and the soil isn’t easily recovered. This is a potential catastrophe because huge deposits of methane will be released into the atmosphere. Consequently, it’s important to preserve these areas. The land can’t be recovered in the foreseeable future. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Permafrost is permanently frozen ground found in Canada, Russia, and Greenland. - If it melts, it will release huge deposits of methane, a potential catastrophe. - The land can’t be recovered in the foreseeable future, and it should be preserved as it is.

4.5.7. 12.47 – Wildfire [VIDEO]

4.5.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Point out the conditions that make an area susceptible to wildfires BRIEF OVERVIEW We have to design to prevent wildfire catastrophes. They occur most prevalently in areas with wet winters and very dry summers, such as in the Mediterranean climate. Generally, hot, dry winds blow in from the interior deserts, and these can be very problematic in areas where trees and vegetation of six centimeters (fuel) grow and then dry out. The large oxygen supply from the hot winds and the volatile forest tree oils can make this situation explode. A small number of these events occur naturally from lightning strikes, but most are from fires deliberately started that then get out of control. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We need to design to prevent wildfires. - Wildfires mostly occur in areas with wet winters and very dry summers. - Hot, dry winds from the desert provide oxygen and dry trees provide fuel for uncontrollable fires. - Most wildfires are started by humans.

4.5.8. 12.48 – Fire Winds in Southern and Northern Hemispheres [ANMTN]

4.5.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW In the southern hemisphere, fire winds spin anti-clockwise around high pressure, and the opposite direction in the north. These occur around desert borders and might be the precursor to wild fires.

4.5.9. 12.49 – Wildfire: Factors that Increase Fire Intensity or Spread [VIDEO]

4.5.9.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Generalize when and where wildfires begin and how they grow - List methods for fire-proofing houses in at-risk areas BRIEF OVERVIEW There are factors that increase fire intensity or spread. Grass fires generally happen after ten or eleven in the morning, once the dew has lifted, whereas forest fires happen in the late afternoon. Dry sticks and dry grass feed the fires, and winds of 20-plus kilometers an hour will spread them, creating fire fronts. Beyond 30 km/hr, or with changes in wind direction, the front begins to break up into even more unpredictable tongues of fire. Fires occur around every 30 years in wet forest, eight to ten years in dry savannas, and as frequently as every year in un-browsed grasslands. When wildfires have started, it’s best to either evacuate early or have an underground safe space. Borders of arid areas have higher wildfire potential, so the threat needs to be addressed. Vegetation that won’t burn and dams are two elements to subdue fires, and mowing or grazing out fuels and careful cool burning can get rid of risks. Houses and gardens must be fire-proofed as much as possible. Firebreaks are crucial, and they can be a mix of roads, ponds, gravel areas, and sappy vegetation located downslope from the settlement. Houses should have simple roof designs with no areas that can catch embers, and home gardens should have no plants that burn. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Many factors — aridity, winds, fuel — increase fire intensity and spreading. - Other factors — gel vegetation, dams, mowing/grazing out fuels — can help lessen risks. - Homes, gardens, and villages should be design to have minimal risk. - Firebreaks include roads, ponds, gravel areas, and sappy vegetation.

4.5.10. 12.50 – Wildfire: Siting of Houses and Buildings [VIDEO]

4.5.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Analyze areas and elements that are, and are not, fire-prone - Outline design methods that mitigate risks for homes in wildfire areas - Describe how to keep yourself, your family, and your home safer from wildfires BRIEF OVERVIEW Houses should not be sited upslope of fire-prone areas, with ridgelines and saddles being particularly susceptible. The steeper the slope to more intense and faster-spreading the fire will be. Straight driveways upslope, bordered with flammable vegetation, will create a blowtorch directed at a house, but a winding driveway with ponds and the curves and slow-burning plants, such as sappy deciduous trees and succulent groundcovers, will help to subdue fires. Houses are also best when excavated into hillsides, with a rim wall and a pond. Fire and radiation refuges should ideally be underground with a 300-liter water tank, buckets, and blankets. The entranceway should have a corridor that turns, deflecting radiating heat. Any fire-prone plants should be removed in the fire season. Peninsulas, islands, and areas that are regularly soaked are safer, while grazing land being converted into forest can be very dangerous when young. Toxic smoke and radiant heat are more likely killers than fire, but getting behind a solid object, optimally white, can create a triangle of shelter. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Sites should not be upslope of fire-prone areas. - Driveways should not be straight nor upslope, but rather curvy with plenty of water and slow-burning vegetation. - A fire-radiation refuge should have a 300-liter tank, buckets, blankets, and indirect entranceway. - Peninsulas, islands, and soakage areas are safer choices for site locations. - Toxic smoke and radiant heat are generally more of a threat than the fire, and this can be avoided by getting behind large, solid, hopefully white objects.

4.6. Modules 12.51 to 12.55

4.6.1. 12.51 – House Sites in Order of Safety [ANMTN]

4.6.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW In fire-prone areas, house sites come in orders of safety. Low, flat slopes in valleys are the safest, and moving upslope increases the fire intensity, with only few houses surviving on the top of these slopes. Every ten degrees in slope angle doubles the fire intensity, and the top of a ridge or house is the most intense. Fire tornadoes with high-speed winds can form on the leeward sides of ridges, and they can travel many kilometers downslope.

4.6.2. 12.52 – Wildfire: Fuel Reduction [VIDEO]

4.6.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List methods for safely and productively reducing wildfire fuel BRIEF OVERVIEW Fuel reduction is one of the most important strategies. Fires will always happen, but the severity can be decreased. Cool burning is the most unsafe method. Instead, we can graze off and mow grasses, and we can compost flammable materials or put them in swales. We can replace fire-prone plants with succulents. Single-specie forests should be banned or located away from human settlements, Houses should be built to fire-proof specifications, with water tanks and ponds. Dams should be included as part of development, as they could release sheet flows of water, and installing them before building is easy. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Fuel reduction is a very important strategy in prevent wildfires, and reducing the severity of the fires that do occur. - Cool burning is the least safe method of reducing fuel. - Grasses can be grazed or mowed, flammable wood can be composted or added to swales, and fire-prone plants can be replaced with succulents. - Houses should be fire-proof, with water tanks and a pond, and dams should be a criterion in development.

4.6.3. 12.53 – Combined Design for Fire Safety [ANMTN]

4.6.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW We can combine many features for fire safety. Fire barriers can be set up downslope: Grazed, irrigated areas with deciduous, non-flammable trees; a sacrificial hedge with gel plants; pond and swale features that dampen the soil; a garden on the fire-front side of the house, surrounded by a driveway and car parks; lush gardens around the house, with 30 meters free of fuel plants and dedicated to lush, fire-dampening vegetation; a solid house painted white with a simple outline; animal shelters and water tanks on the upward side of the house.

4.6.4. 12.54 – Firebreak [ANMTN]

4.6.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW To set up complex firebreaks and radiation shields, we can use lines of deciduous, survivor trees as the first front. After that, short-clipped grazed grasses can be followed by hedges of gel plants. Swales should be throughout the systems with hedges of fire-resistant trees like willow and tagasaste. Finally, a deciduous tree line should be closely pruned and clipped down before the fire season.

4.6.5. 12.55 – Fire Shields, Shadows [ANMTN]

4.6.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Radiant heat kills before fire burns. White-painted brick houses, stone walls, thick tree trunks, hollows, caves, hedgerows, and car bodies all provide shelter and a radiation shield, which projects back four to five times its height.

5. Module 13: Aquaculture

5.1. Modules 13.1 to 13.10

5.1.1. 13.1 – Chapter 13 Course Notes

5.1.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Aquaculture systems can be used to produce plants and animals, and they can also be wild or intensely cultivated. These systems have the potential to be many times more productive than land-based agriculture, with nearly 30 times the protein as cattle (in the same amount of space), the fastest growing leaf vegetable (kangkong), and the most productive — by weight — human food (Chinese water chestnuts). Though wetlands are the highest yielding systems on earth, aquaculture was worked out of Western agriculture in favor of industrial fishing, but we are now realizing how aquaculture affects many other systems: recharging rivers, filtering water, depositing nutrient. Historically, people have settled in places with water features, and these ecosystems have supported entire civilizations, such as in Iraq, Peru, and Mexico. Continued...

5.1.2. 13.2 – Introduction to Aquaculture [VIDEO]

5.1.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize why aquaculture is such an exciting subject in permaculture BRIEF OVERVIEW Aquaculture is very important to production, and all wetlands, natural or created, can be used to produce aquatic plants and animals. These systems can be wild or intense, and they provide the highest production of all systems: 30X the protein as cattle in the same space, the fastest growing leaf vegetable (kang kong), and the most productive human food by weight (Chinese water chestnut). Tropical rainforests and wetlands have the greatest possible yield, mangroves are the richest ecosystems, and swamps and estuaries produce huge amounts of biomass. Aquaculture, though, was worked out of Western systems in favor of industrial fishing, and this adjustment for convenience has degraded our aquaculture systems. Now, we are realizing their importance and how many other systems rely on them. With their slow drainage, they recharge waterways. They filter out catchments, purifying the water. They stop, slow, and deposit nutrients. Beyond that, catchment and river health is inextricably linked to the health of the coastal reefs. Historically, people have settled in areas with these water features, and watersheds have been an ancient means of dividing people. The survival of nations depends on clean water and varied water habitats. Water is the main element that provides life. These ecosystems have supported entire civilizations in places like Iraq, Peru, and Mexico. Nowadays, Oceanic and Asian cultures rely on aquaculture rice and taro paddies, and rich cultures remain settled on river deltas. Aquaculture is a very useful way of boosting production. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Aquaculture is important for boosting production. - Both natural and created wetlands can be used for aquaculture. - Aquaculture is the highest producing of all systems. - Many other systems rely on aquaculture recharging rivers, filtering water, and depositing nutrients. - Civilizations have been settling near wetlands since ancient times. Water is the main element that provides life.

5.1.3. 13.3 – Aquaculture [VIDEO]

5.1.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Summarize how productive aquaculture systems can be, created or natural - Relate the roles that aquaculture plays within an ecosystem - Provide a historic overview of aquaculture in the Western world and in traditional societies BRIEF OVERVIEW Fish, mollusks, and plants from natural systems are now disappearing due to fishing and overharvesting, but cultivated water-based systems have supplied food for millennia. Now, these systems have advanced technologically, and they are more stable and productive than land-based systems. There are several advantages to aquaculture. The water supply is constant. Nutrients are available in the water. Polycultures are already recognized. The medium is three-dimensional, with light, nutrient, and plants. In a weightless environment, efficiency is better because the energy loss in cultivation is much less. Plus, water can produce energy and be used for recreation. However, aquaculture has not been huge in Western cultures because people don’t know how to run the system and how to market it. But, fish have long been a part of wet terraces, and this is now becoming a dominate system. Aquaculture provides diverse yields and many interactions with wildlife, yet monocultures — single species of fish or crops — still are not sustainable. In permaculture, we aim to design low energy ponds with few inputs and high outputs. Rather than running on pumps in large, unnatural pools, ponds should be configured for aeration, natural heating and cooling, encourage positive nutrient flow, and have accessory benefits, like waterwheels. Then, they will build high quality soils, improve the landscape, and benefit the systems within and around it. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Harvestable species from natural systems are disappearing due to fishing and overharvesting. - Aquaculture systems have many advantages: constant water, nutrients, light, plants, and recognized polycultures. - Despite not being adopted by Western cultures, aquaculture systems have supplied food for millennia. - Monoculture aquaculture systems are still not sustainable. - Permaculture designs look to make natural, low-energy ponds with low input and high output.

5.1.4. 13.4 – The Case for Aquaculture [VIDEO]

5.1.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Point out how aquaculture systems are more productive than land-based systems - Realize the reasons aquaculture systems are not prevalent in Western culture - Generalize the permaculture approach to low-energy aquaculture BRIEF OVERVIEW Fish, mollusks, and plants from natural systems are now disappearing due to fishing and overharvesting, but cultivated water-based systems have supplied food for millennia. Now, these systems have advanced technologically, and they are more stable and productive than land-based systems. There are several advantages to aquaculture. The water supply is constant. Nutrients are available in the water. Polycultures are already recognized. The medium is three-dimensional, with light, nutrient, and plants. In a weightless environment, efficiency is better because the energy loss in cultivation is much less. Plus, water can produce energy and be used for recreation. However, aquaculture has not been huge in Western cultures because people don’t know how to run the system and how to market it. But, fish have long been a part of wet terraces, and this is now becoming a dominate system. Aquaculture provides diverse yields and many interactions with wildlife, yet monocultures — single species of fish or crops — still are not sustainable. In permaculture, we aim to design low energy ponds with few inputs and high outputs. Rather than running on pumps in large, unnatural pools, ponds should be configured for aeration, natural heating and cooling, encourage positive nutrient flow, and have accessory benefits, like waterwheels. Then, they will build high quality soils, improve the landscape, and benefit the systems within and around it. KEY TAKEAAWYS - Harvestable species from natural systems are disappearing due to fishing and overharvesting. - Aquaculture systems have many advantages: constant water, nutrients, light, plants, and recognized polycultures. - Despite not being adopted by Western cultures, aquaculture systems have supplied food for millennia. - Monoculture aquaculture systems are still not sustainable. - Permaculture designs look to make natural, low-energy ponds with low input and high output.

5.1.5. 13.5 – Pond Polycultures [ANMTN]

5.1.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Typical pond elements and furnishings for a polyculture include late-ripening fruits, bee-attracting plants, insectivorous plants, sun-side planting shelves, duck forages, water chestnuts, eel habitat, mussels, crayfish habitat, a floating fly trap, low-level-feeding fish, ducks, waterfowl nest boxes, a bamboo island with a legume tree and burrowing native water rats, water plants, fish forage, water lilies and lotuses, a carnivorous fish cage with a light trap attracting insects, as well as comfrey and mulberry as cut and throw fish food.

5.1.6. 13.6 – Some Factors Affecting Total Useful Yields [VIDEO]

5.1.6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize that different fish populations are determined by different factors - Describe the sources and effects of edge, oxygen, and nutrients in ponds - Estimate the production of a balanced system with low inputs BRIEF OVERVIEW Ponds with fish cultivation gain weight in fish. Numbers of fry fish will naturally diminish as they reach harvestable size. Plankton-eaters (tilapia and carp) can be kept at fixed weights with relation to the pond’s surface area. People who rear fry fish will know which species and how to balance stock amounts. Omnivorous fish can be stocked in relation to meter-distance of shoreline. We have to get familiar with fish species, area measurements, and edge effects so that we can gauge the carrying capacity of ponds without inputs. Too many fish means they won’t reach full size, with some dying off. Increases in oxygen, edge, and nutrient individually equate to increases in carrying capacity. Oxygenation can be improved by disturbing water surfaces or moving water in and out. Edges can be increased with tessellating designs that fit within the landscape. Nutrient can be enhanced with manure. The least productive systems would be round, concrete ponds with clear, warm water and no wind. A general estimation of production is 200 kilos of fish per hectare, with 300-gram fish being ideal pan-sized specimens. Designs should include freely inputs of lime, aeration, manure, and high protein feed. Breeding can result in overcrowding, whereas a depleted fry population can mean only a few large fish, so it is crucial to find a good balance. This is done by having a few, caged predator fish and caring well for young fry. Then, we have design ponds to have guild of plants and animals and configure them to be productive without inputs. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We need to learn about the types of fish, area, and edge effect in aquaculture ponds. Increased oxygen, nutrient, and edge will create increased carrying capacity. - The least productive pond would be round and concrete with clear, warm water and no wind. - Systems should be designed to have freely available inputs of lime, aeration, manure, and high protein feed. - Designs should have mixed plant and animal guilds and well-plotted configurations.

5.1.7. 13.7 – Stocking Rates [ANMTN]

5.1.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW This can be a fixed weight per surface area for plankton feeders or a per meter length of shoreline for omnivores. For omnivores, it is best to maximize edge.

5.1.8. 13.8 – Edges, Interfaces and Gradients in Water [VIDEO]

5.1.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Point out that systems with curvy, extended edges are more interactive thus more productive - Explain how water edges interact beneficially with animals and elements - Provide advantages of being able to harvest by boat BRIEF OVERVIEW There is an edge effect in water, and fish are born knowing the edge. Long, narrow, curved systems have more production because they have more interactions than large, open systems. Combination of edges should not be overly chaotic to be sustainably productive, and swales, canals, and chinampas are examples of good situations. Flat landscapes allow us to create a lot of extra curves in these systems. Harvests can be done by water, and boats can hold much more than any wheelbarrow. Floating fruits and vegetables can also ride water flows off the system for harvesting later. Water edges are preferred by many animals (frogs and water fowl) as an escapement from predators. The top surface of water has exchanges with oxygen, and the bottom surface of water has interactions with soil. Many animals take advantage of these interfaces, and we can take advantage of that. KEY TAKEAWAYS - There is an edge effect in water, and fish know to take advantage of it. - Long, narrow, curved ponds have more interactions than large, open ponds. - Flat landscapes allow us to create extra curves in swales, canals, and chinampas. - Harvesting by water, in boats, allows us to carry much more at a time. - Water edges—with land, with shorelines, with soil—have many interactions with animals and elements that we can take advantage of.

5.1.9. 13.9 – Energy Considerations [VIDEO]

5.1.9.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Realize that excavation costs are small for the longevity of production with ponds - List energy considerations for operating these systems and how to reduce these inputs BRIEF OVERVIEW Excavation costs of ponds are small for the longevity of the systems, which can last for hundreds of years, even thousands. Terraces can last similarly. This whole time, the aquaculture systems can be in production. There are some important energy considerations for these systems. Transporting products is important, and most of them need to get to market quickly. Food and fertilizer for maintaining the systems should be assessed, and optimally, the system design will provide them internally. Fuel for pumping water can be a large percentage of costs, but with good design, it can be minimal or non-existent. Choosing the right species, to match the system, can greatly reduce inputs. Catchments, both water flow and pollution, can also have a huge effect on aquatic organisms, which tend to be susceptible to related problems. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Excavation costs for ponds and terraces are small for the longevity of the systems. - Low-maintenance ponds and terraces can last for 100s of years. - Other energy considerations include transportation, food/fertilizer, fuel, appropriate species, and water flows.

5.1.10. 13.10 – Some Factors Affecting Total Useful Yields; Water Quality [VIDEO]

5.1.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Point out the roles that depth can play in productive ponds - Describe the oxygen necessities and challenges for fish and life in ponds - List ways to oxygenate ponds and prevent oxygen shortages BRIEF OVERVIEW For water quality, we must understand that depth is very important. Productive species rarely go below 2.6 meters, staying mostly between half a meter and there. But, deeper water still needs to be oxygenated, which creates needless cost. Controlling water flow in and out of the system can help with oxygenating, and deeper spots can be included for refuges from cold and heat. The refuges can also help with harvesting. Oxygen in water is consumed by life processes and decomposition. Five parts per million is adequate for life, but one part per million will cause fish to die. Aerobic waters are well-supplied with oxygen from agitation, aeration, and turbulent flows, as well as a lack of decomposing matter. Facultive waters, like swamps and weedy ponds, have surface aeration but abundant anaerobic sediment. Anaerobic waters might be sewage lagoons or over-manured shallows with low life. Warm water can dissolve more oxygen than cold, and plants produce oxygen by day but consume it by night. This combination can be problematic on warm, summer nights, but it can be addressed by reducing organic waste in ponds and being ready to aerate. A tractor with a paddlewheel can be used in emergencies, but the fish should be harvested the next day. Oxygen can be supplied in many ways. Fountains or showerheads can be run on just two meters of head pressure. Free-flowing forms can disturb water, as can mechanical agitators and solar power pumps. Separate parts of the pond can be aerated and act as feeding spots for fish, and they can then be fenced to harvest or trap them. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Understanding depth is very important for maintaining water quality in ponds. - Oxygen in water is consumed by life processes and decomposition. - There are three general states of oxygenation: aerobic, facultive, and anaerobic. - Oxygen can be supplied with fountains, showerheads, flow forms, mechanical agitators, and/or solar power pumps. - Separate parts of ponds can be aerated and treated as feeding grounds to aid in harvesting/trapping fish.

5.2. Modules 13.11 to 13.20

5.2.1. 13.11 – Fish Refuges [ANMTN]

5.2.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW These are a deep section in a shallow pond and can prevent fish from dying in freezing, heat, or water loss. They also assist in capturing fish in sump of 2m by 3m by 0.6m deep. and the area between deeps can be planted to rice, with water maintained a lower level for a period.

5.2.2. 13.12 – Cone Aerator [ANMTN]

5.2.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A simple trompe can be made from a cone aerator in a falling flow, and it will draw oxygenated water to fish refuges in ponds. This can help to save fish in water loss situations and in hatching some fish eggs. The cone aerator needs to be adjustable to control water flow, which creates suction in pipes as it falls through before traveling through a manifold and under gravel beds. It is then released as aerated water in the gravel, where fish like to spawn and lay eggs.

5.2.3. 13.13 – Oxygenated Pond [ANMTN]

5.2.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW An oxygenating pond in a restricted area, a small bay, can be used to feed pond fish, and it helps if it is shaded. It’s a very convenient place to trap fish for harvest.

5.2.4. 13.14 – Acidity-Alkalinity [VIDEO]

5.2.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize the pH limits of fish and where the pH levels of ponds originate - Outline methods for adjusting waters that are too acidic or too alkaline BRIEF OVERVIEW Before installing ponds, we need to check the pH levels of soils and runoff water, and the pH needs to be between six and eight. Fish die at extremity levels exceeding 3.7 and 10.5. It’s important to know the levels and know where a pond is. Peat, mangroves, coastal grass flats, and some granite soils will create acidic water, which can be humic, tannic, organic, or sulfuric. Peat can be mounded and leached with rain to reach a better balance, and/or ponds can be limed. Ponds in a series with soft, acid water favor good food organisms. To adjust pH levels from acid to alkaline, gravel, dolomite, and oyster shells can be used. Alkaline conditions are more favorable to fish and mollusks, so ponds in a series can be used to grow food and then water pH level adjusted to favor fish. To move back from alkaline to acid, peat can be used. KEY TAKEAWAYS - The pH level of soils and runoff water should be checked before installing ponds. - Fish die at 3.7 or below and 10.5 or above, but the level is ideally between 6 and 8. - Acidic waters — caused by peat, mangroves, coastal grass fields, and some granite fields — favor food organisms. - Water can be adjusted to alkaline with gravel, lime, dolomite, and oyster shells, and this favors fish.

5.2.5. 13.15 – Mud, Silt, Humus and Waste Removal [VIDEO]

5.2.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Examine where extra waste material comes from and how to remove it - Explain what to do with the waste material and how to revitalize a drained pond BRIEF OVERVIEW Shallow water produces lots of soil, but excess waste needs to be removed before it creates problems. Build ups of decaying material require action, and animals like shrimps and rodents can eat weeds that produce excess detritus. Flowing water will mean no problems with this, but generally ponds need to be checked and excess waste removed. Drained ponds can be limed, and the waste can be layered with green material for compost. Ponds can then be rested for a season and planted to a crop that will be flooded. The layered muck can go on crops as regular yield throughout the pond’s life (Wet terraces work the same). Large ponds might require jet pumps to act as vacuums to remove materials. This can be a benefit for holistic system. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Shallow waters produce a lot of soil, but excess waste needs to be removed. - Animals like shrimps and rodents eat weeds and help control excess detritus. - Drained ponds can be limed, rested for a season, and planted to a crop that will be flooded. - Waste from ponds can be layered with green material to create compost. - This output can be beneficial to holistic systems.

5.2.6. 13.16 – Jet Pumps [ANMTN]

5.2.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Jet pumps can be used to deepen ponds or remove silt build ups, to excavate ponds in sand and gravel, and to vacuum up large objects without pump damage.

5.2.7. 13.17 – Some Factors Affecting Total Useful Yields; Fertilizer [VIDEO]

5.2.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Point out some of the requirements of ponds and things that live in them - Give examples of interactions that birds and ponds can have - Note how the nutrients are created and later distributed in established water systems BRIEF OVERVIEW We need to test pond water to gauge what is needed. Most new ponds are deficient in phosphates, but functional ponds are phosphate producers. Manure encourages algae growth, which instigates a trophic series with zoo plankton, microorganisms in mud, crustaceans, and ultimately fish. Herbivores can survive in these murky waters, but some predators need clear water. Ponds should have five times the plant-algae eaters to predators. Pond edges are ideal for bird perches, nesting boxes, and domestic poultry. Ducks can be released on ponds, chickens roosted above them, pigeon lofts located over them, and turkey perches put atop them. These animals will provide complex nutrients, but they must be managed. Fertilizer can be absorbed quickly in water systems and increase yields by a multiple of ten, but we need something to take up the nutrients. Systems need to be set up to convert nutrient to products. When the set up is finished and functioning, the downstream flow from the pond will have nutrients and can be used on crops. They can become a critical element in land-based production. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Pond water should be tested to gauge what it needs. - Pond edges are great for bird perches, nests, roosts, and so on to add complex plant nutrients to the water. - Fertilizer can increase yields by 10, but something needs to take up the nutrients. - Functional systems can have downstream flow of nutrient-rich water for crops.

5.2.8. 13.18 – Devices to Bring Manure to Ponds [ANMTN]

5.2.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Many devices can be used to return land nutrients (manure) to ponds, with pond water being used for irrigation so that each part of the cycle provides a yield.

5.2.9. 13.19 – Shelter and refuges [VIDEO]

5.2.9.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List shelters that can be designed to help young fish survive BRIEF OVERVIEW Shelter and refuges will help the survival of young fish. Shallow ledges (60cm or less) can be planted to reeds, which will supply safe habitat. Bundles of sticks, bamboo pipes, tangles of fish nets, and clay pipes can all provide escapements and habitat so the feed-fish can remain in production and continue to feed our stock fish. Strategic separation of predator and prey will increase yields. KEY TAKAWAYS - Shelter and refuges help young fish survive. - Shallow ledges can be planted to reeds to provide safe habitat. - Escapements include bundles of sticks, bamboo pipes, tangles of fish nets, and clay pipes. - When feed fish can remain in production, they will be there to feed stock fish.

5.2.10. 13.20 – Some Factors Affecting Total Useful Yields; Temperatures [VIDEO]

5.2.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Realize that depth causes water to be cooler in warm weather, and warmer in cool weather - Outline the temperatures, ideal and limited, for cold-weather and warm-weather fish - Give examples for maintaining more moderate temperatures in ponds - Recognize that local fish work best, and that a small heat gain can extend growing seasons BRIEF OVERVIEW There are many layers and gradients within a solution, including particles and stream flows, that affect heat in a pond. Saltwater will go below freshwater to create haloclines. In warm weather, water will be cooler at depth, but in cool weather, it will be warmer at depth, creating thermoclines. The line between these systems can be very exact if waters are not turbulent, but with turbulence, the layers will be gradient. Cold-weather fish stop at 21 degrees Celsius, with optimal feeding between 15 and 18 degrees, and tropical fish don’t like below 21 degrees and like to feed between 20 and 25 Celsius. Eurothermal fish, like gambusia (mosquito-eaters), can survive much larger variations. Plants and algae are more prevalent with higher temperatures. Fish ponds can be designed with overflow pipes that have a T-junctions so that they pull water from near the surface. In the summer, this design will cycle out hot water, and in the winter, a sleeve can be put over the vertical pipe so that cooler water from the deeps are drained. Water can also be heated with solar heaters, black pipes with passive solar heating, and glasshouses on rafts. Shaded narrow ponds, buried pipes on the bottom, and floating shade houses can help to cool water in the heat. Local fish do the best in systems, and their production is increased with a little help. With a heat gain of only three degrees, fish growing seasons can be extended by 40%, so it is worth the effort. KEY TAKEAWAYS - There are many layers and gradients of temperatures within water. - In warm weather, cooler waters are at depth, and in cold weather, warmer waters are at depth. - Cold weather fish die at above 21 degrees Celsius, and tropical fish struggle below 21 degrees. - Plants and algae produce more at high temperatures. - Water can be heated with solar heaters, black pipes with passive heating, and floating glasshouses. - Water can be cooled with shaded narrow ponds, pipes at the bottom, and floating shade houses. - Local fish species generally work best. Raising temperatures three degrees can significantly increase production.

5.3. Modules 13.21 to 13.30

5.3.1. 13.21 – Some Factors Affecting Total Useful Yields; Salinity [VIDEO]

5.3.1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Generalize the different salinity levels suitable for freshwater and saltwater fish - Point out that brackish water, particularly in the tropical mangroves, is the richest water BRIEF OVERVIEW It’s important to check salinity. Fresh water has hardly any salt. It’s safe for us to drink at seven parts per 1000. Brackish is 11-12 parts per 1000, and this is where oysters start. At 27 parts per 1000, marine organisms begin to increase, but seas tend to be 33-35 parts per 1000. Hyper-saline solutions with very little breeding are about 40-50 parts per 1000. Freshwater fish don’t work well above eight parts per 1000, whereas saltwater fish don’t work well below 27 parts per 1000. Some species can move between both, and switching types of water helps to clean up parasites and diseases. Brackish water is the richest, with tropical mangroves being the richest example of this. Hawaiian fish ponds are a great technique for taking advantage of this, but many traditional systems used this expansion. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We must check salinity levels in water, especially near the coast. - Freshwater is below seven parts per 1000, and seas are general 33-35 parts per 1000. - Brackish water is 11-12 parts per 1000 and is the richest system. - Freshwater fish don’t work well above 8/1000, and saltwater fish don’t work well below 27/1000. - We have to understand what these changes mean and how to take advantage of them.

5.3.2. 13.22 – Some Factors Affecting Total Useful Yields; Flow [VIDEO]

5.3.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Note that flowing water that isn’t flowing too strongly creates higher yields - Identify ways of adjusting flows to create more oxygenation and production BRIEF OVERVIEW Flows create oxygenation, and that creates more plant growth up until the level that flow is too strong. At the right rates, flowing water produces much more than still water ponds, or flow forms and weirs with ramps can passively oxygenate. Flow needs to be balanced so as not to leach soluble nutrients and calcium. Pipe and channel flow can be a great advantage, or notched weirs can concentrate flows. Then, we can introduce fertilizer as needed, managing it by switching flows on and off. That’s how we gain control, and that’s good design. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Flows creates oxygenation and more plant growth until the flow rate is too strong. - Flow forms and weirs with ramps can help to passively oxygenate. - Pipes and notched weirs can concentrate flows. - Being able to switch flows on and off can help us control fertilizers as they are needed.

5.3.3. 13.23 – Choice in Fish Species and Factors in Yield [VIDEO]

5.3.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Outline the trophic ladder in a pond - Break down the populations of fish in accordance with their feeding habits - Summarize how to run trials for choosing the right species of fish stock BRIEF OVERVIEW We have to consider different fish species and how it affects yields. The trophic ladder in a pond begins with algae, produced by sunlight and organic matter, and that extends to zooplankton, which feed crustaceans, which feed fish. Zooplankton can be seeded into a pond with a bucket of mud from the bottom of a good dam. Crustaceans can be trapped and introduced, and fish can then be brought into to complete the ladder. Ponds will also need edge plants, anchor plants, and underwater plants to clean the water. It’s easy to fertilize plants and plankton with manures. Predators are at the top of the trophic ladder for fish, and omnivores follow, producing twice as much. Insectivores are below omnivores, and they produce twice as much again. Finally, the easiest fish to raise are plankton-feeders, which produce three times the amount of insectivores. Ideally, in systems with omnivores and predators, crustaceans and fish be produced as part of the system. This is possible because water flows to move nutrients (algae/plankton), and insects can be multiplied with living processes (insectivores). Then, the fish produced from this can be used to feed animals higher up the trophic ladder. We must then identify good stock by running trials. Different species can be stocked 5,000-10,000 to a hectare and fed for a month, after which time we can select the most efficient growers by how each performed. After finding these species, we can begin trying to find combination that complement one another, and that creates an even more productive polyculture. This is yet another way to extend the potential of ponds. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We have to choose species by which provides the largest, easiest yields. - The trophic ladder in ponds starts with algae and goes up to zooplankton then crustacean then fish. - We can easily fertilize water with manure to enhance algae and zooplankton. - The trophic ladder for fish peaks with predators, moving down to omnivores, insectivores, and plankton-eaters, respectively. - Omnivores produce twice as much as predators, insectivores produce twice as much as omnivores, and plankton-eaters produce thrice as much as insectivores. - We have to identify good stock with trials and choose fish based on growth performance. - Trialing complementary combinations of fish species can lead us to even more productive polycultures.

5.3.4. 13.24 – Rapid uptake of Nutrients [VIDEO]

5.3.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain what prepares a pond for having manure (nutrients) introduced - Recognize that fish production increases when small forage fish have habitat BRIEF OVERVIEW Ponds must be ready to have manure introduced, and this is by having plenty of algae, zooplankton, and crustaceans to convert the nutrients. With these elements in place, there won’t be an overload of nutrients. Fish production comes from breeding fish, so it’s important to have cover for small forage fish, which will feed the largest fish. This will greatly increase yields. Up to 50% of a pond can be habitat for forage fish without losing any production. Having these things in place will take stress off the system because there will always be plenty of food. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Ponds should have to sufficient algae, zooplankton, and crustaceans to receive manure and nutrients. - Up to 50% of the pond should be habitat for breeding and feeding small forage fish. - Cultivating these lower elements on the trophic ladder means there will be plenty of food, taking stress of the system.

5.3.5. 13.25 – Choice in Fish Species and Factors in Yield; Water Quality [VIDEO]

5.3.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Realize that fish create their own water quality problems with manures - Point out the ways in which plants can both clean water and require maintenance - Relate how mussels help to maintain acceptable water quality BRIEF OVERVIEW Water quality equates to waste consumption species. Fish create their own problems with their own manures. Underwater plants will clean and absorb some of this nutrients, but too many of this plants will clog the pond. Edge spaces, rooted no lower than 60 centimeters, will also use nutrients and can be useful. Floating plants are also useful and utilize the nutrient, but they shouldn’t cover the entire surface. There needs to be an area where plants can be skimmed off. They provide great mulch with no seeds viable on land. Mussels continuously pump water to clean it as well. They take phosphate out of the water, and with an anal spike, they put it into the mud. In return, the pond bottom is nutrient rich for harvesting, and the mussels provide yet another product from the polyculture. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Water quality is controlled by waste consumption species. - Underwater, edge, and floating plants all help to consume nutrients but must be kept under control. - Mussel are another great water cleansing element, and they provide another useful product from the pond.

5.3.6. 13.26 – Culling of Excess Small Stock [VIDEO]

5.3.6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Note the effects of restricted predation on small fish populations BRIEF OVERVIEW Culling by predation keeps a healthy balance amongst the fish, and a small number of predators will clear out the weak and unhealthy fish. Predators can be restricted to cages, kept in fenced sections of the pond, or allowed to free-range. Kept in check, there will always be an overstocking of fry for the predators because they naturally don’t all survive. Predators tend to be good quality fish, so they can be harvested with the others when the time comes. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Culling by predation keeps a healthy balance amongst fish, clearing out the weak. - Predators can be caged, fenced, or allowed to free-range. - Fry will always be overstocked because they naturally don’t all survive and compensate for that.

5.3.7. 13.27 – Utilization of Different Foods [VIDEO]

5.3.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Outline how we can maximize our space by choosing species with different food sources BRIEF OVERVIEW We can utilize space by choosing species with different food preferences, so the same pond can pond can be used. Ponds should have ledges with edge plants where small, forage fish can live. Then, there can be surface feeders, different levels of middle feeders, and bottom feeders filling the different layers of the pond. Three to seven species can occupy the space without competing, and the detritus from each species will feed the layers beneath them. With this technique, overall production is much larger. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We utilize space by choosing species with varying food preferences. - Different species feed at different levels of the pond, so we can mix them without creating competition. - Fish higher in the water will produce detritus to feed fish lower in the water, creating more overall production.

5.3.8. 13.28 – The Controlling of Breeding in Fish Ponds [VIDEO]

5.3.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain how to control stock levels with harvesting, predation, and habitat BRIEF OVERVIEW Optimum stocking rates rely on the number of fish staying constant, but breeding can overcrowd a pond. We need to start early, stocking in the spring, so we can harvest before the breeding cycle. Predator stocking will also control the numbers of smaller fish. We can also remove the conditions needed for breeding, such as hollow logs or gravel piles. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Optimum stocking rates require the number of fish staying constant. - We have to control numbers by harvesting before breeding cycles, including predators, and removing breeding conditions.

5.3.9. 13.29 – Fish Losses From Other Causes [VIDEO]

5.3.9.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List elements that can cause fish losses BRIEF OVERVIEW Many things can cause fish losses, and it helps for the farmer to be nearby to monitor water color, fish activity, turbidity, and oxygen. Predators—water fowl, otters, eels—can arrive and create problems. Oxygen can be lacking as the fish get larger and need more, so it’s best to clear out plants before this stage. In an emergency, a tractor with a paddlewheel can aerate the pond, and the fish should be harvested as soon as possible. Disease and parasite can also be troublesome, and these general inner the system through stream water, especially during extreme cold or hot times. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Farmers should monitor water color, fish activity, turbidity, and oxygen to minimize losses. - Predators, lack of oxygen, and diseases/parasites can all cause fish losses.

5.3.10. 13.30 – Choice in Fish Species and Factors in Yield; Stocking Rates [VIDEO]

5.3.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize ideal stocking rates for different fish and the outcomes of lapses in these - Point out how fish work to control the population rates BRIEF OVERVIEW Predatory fish will have much lower numbers, 200-300 per hectare, than forage fish, 5000-10,000 per hectare, and this is due to the species ability to tolerate crowding while getting what they need. When rates are too low, harvests will be just a few large fish, and when rates are too dense, there will be an abundance of undersized fish. Ideally, harvests will be 5-10% undersized, with 90-95% being the right size. Farmers will need to experiment and manage these numbers to find the right mix. Forage fish should be overstocked because they’ll naturally be culled, whereas predatory fish control their population with cannibalism, with stronger predators thinning out the population. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Predatory fish will stock at much lower rates than forage fish. - Stocking rates are based on a species ability to tolerate crowding while getting what they need. - Rates that are too low create small harvests of large fish, and rates that are too dense create large harvests of undersized fish. - Farmers are working to find the ideal balance: 90-95% of fish being the right size.

5.4. Modules 13.31 to 13.40

5.4.1. 13.31 – Fish Pond Configurations and Food Supply; Pond Construction [VIDEO]

5.4.1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Describe the ideal fish pond - Summarize the dimensions, functions, and output of small ponds - Generalize the needs — clay content, depth, tools, bottom — for making a fish pond - Outline the construction and multiple uses of forage and fry fish ponds - Consider what larger ponds can provide and require BRIEF OVERVIEW Ponds are an important part of what can be achieved with aquaculture. Smaller ponds of 200 square meters or less can be done by hand, but ponds larger than that will usually require machinery. The crucial need in either case is subsoil with decent clay content so that the pond seals. Fish ponds are rarely over three meters deep, so they require some attention on evaporation. They should fit the landscape and ideally have a flat bottom for a constant depth. Canals leading to and from the pond will ideally be sealed as well to prevent water loss. There is an order of size that determines the usage of ponds. Small ponds of one to ten square meters will generally be no more than 60 centimeters deep, and they can be used for predator — frogs — habitat and host of highly productive plants, such as water chestnut, kangkong, and watercress. On the larger end of this spectrum, small fish and shrimp can be raised, the pond can be a thermal mass element, and the water can be used for nutrient-rich irrigation. Slightly larger ponds, ten to 100 square meters, can be used to raise forage and fry fish, create an aquatic nursery, act as a firebreak, and moderate the temperature around them. With a little added aeration, these can yield up to 2000 kilos of protein. The next size, 100-500 square meters, is the ideal fish pond, which can be used for one type of fish or multiple species, and it can be managed intensely for continuous yields. A pond between 500 square meters and five hectares can provide a good income for a large family, and five hectares is generally the largest size someone will install. Ponds of 50 to 500 hectares are very rare and essentially lakes, with there own ecosystem. They can provide an income for several families. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Ponds are huge part of aquaculture systems. - Ponds of 200 square meters or less can be dug by hand, but bigger than that usually calls for a machine. - Clay content in the subsoil is crucial for sealing ponds. - Ponds have different uses, determined by their size. - Small ponds are good for cultivating crops, providing habitat, and producing small fish/shrimp. - Ponds of ten to 100 square meters can be used for fish production, plant nurseries, firebreaks, and irrigation. - 100 to 500 square meters is the ideal size for a fish pond and can provide continuous yields. - 500 square meters to five-hectare ponds can produce enough income for a large family.

5.4.2. 13.32 – Pond Walls [ANMTN]

5.4.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Where clay isn’t plentiful, pond walls can have tamped clay cut off as an efficient way to seal ponds where there is a shortage of material.

5.4.3. 13.33 – Fish Pond Configurations and Food Supply; Orders of Depth [VIDEO]

5.4.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize what grows, fish and plants, at different depths BRIEF OVERVIEW There are also orders of depth. It begins with wet mud, which can be used to grow aquatic crops. At depths of two to six centimeters, small floating plants, crustaceans, and emergent plants work well. Between ten and 100 centimeters, anchoring plants and little fish can be cultivated. The most common depth for growing fish is two meters, and this is because it is particularly good for aeration and maintaining a constant temperature. Four to five meter hollows in ponds make good refuges for fish during particularly hot or cold times. Between two and 15 meters, there is clear water and some life, but below that, populations severely lessen and it’s very cold. In deeper valley dams, bodies of water will actually have turnover of temperature. KEY TAKEAWAYS - In ponds, there are orders of depth. Wet mud is good for aquatic crops. - Two to six centimeters is good for small floating plants, crustaceans, and emergent plants. - Ten to 100 centimeters is adequate for small fish and anchoring plants. - Two meters is the most common depth for raising fish, as it good for aeration and constant temperatures. - Hollows down to four or five meters make good refuges for fish during extreme temperatures. - Below 15 meters, water becomes very cold, and there is very little life.

5.4.4. 13.34 – Factors in Layout [ANMTN]

5.4.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Ponds can be laid out to be isolated, parallel, in series, inside one another, and in the same or different sizes. These factors should be selected for a particular landscapes and/or fish species or polyculture. Depths might need to be varied for forages, breeding, and/or protection.

5.4.5. 13.35 – Ponds in Series and Flow [VIDEO]

5.4.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Contrast ponds in isolation, in parallel, and in a series - Break down the roles of each potential pond in a series - Explain fitting ponds in a series into the landscape BRIEF OVERVIEW Ponds can be in isolation, in parallels, or in a series. Isolated ponds don’t share the same water and can be good for trials and tests. Parallel systems are the most common, and they are systemized for predictability. Ponds in a series can have trophic levels and facilitate sequences of interaction. Sewage ponds can lead to insect producing ponds, which move to shrimp ponds leading into fish and mussel ponds, all of which culminate in ponds with predator fish. Similar sequencing can be used with hatcheries. A side swamp and/or biogas unit could be installed at the front of this series for added productivity. Also, these ponds in series fit into the landscape. For example, in a valley, the ponds could naturally grow larger as the valley widens. The systems will change as they evolve, and operators will understand more and more how to work with them. These are not monoculture fish ponds with very controlled feeding systems, requiring lots of energy inputs. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Ponds can be isolated, parallel, or in a series. - Ponds in a series can have trophic levels to facilitate specific interactions. - Ponds in a series are made to fit the landscape and evolve over time.

5.4.6. 13.36 – Consecutive Series in Open Drains [ANMTN]

5.4.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Aquaponic farms in separate series with open drains can set up a trophic ladder. At the top, drains lead down to systems that are small dam walls, backing up one to the other with oversized drains that have swale like functions, as well as permanent ponds in the landscape. The series can be arranged to allow one transit of water to travel with one forage animals from one large system to another. Forage fish, shrimps, and mussels can be early pieces of the series, with side ponds of carnivorous fish. Further down can be tadpoles, insects, and daphnia shrimp for fish feed. The bottom pond can have omnivorous fish that eventually end up in large fish ponds with sophisticated production can go on. Each pond will have deep on the lower side, where there is a clay compacted wall with an overflow drain pipe leading to a splash pond so that each pool splash down its water to the next pool.

5.4.7. 13.37 – Fish Pond Configurations and Food Supply; Annidations [VIDEO]

5.4.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Give examples of ways we can fit ponds inside of larger ponds to control our systems BRIEF OVERVIEW We can fit ponds inside of ponds. We can have a dam with a floating ring pond, creating a confined space of our stock fish, providing us better control with all the benefits of the larger pond. We can fence areas off, such as for eggs; however, with floating ponds, we have the option of moving them to specific places and easier harvests. We can also solar heat ponds with plastic covered, sleeved areas that raise temperatures, or we can cool them with shaded ponds. We can even create traps that allow fish into the ponds from channel inlets but prevent them from leaving. All of this gives us more control of our systems. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Ponds can fit inside of ponds, such as with floating ring ponds or fenced off areas. - The separated spaces can be used to confine stock species, keep eggs safe, or heat and cool a pond. - Annidations give us an added advantage by allowing us more control of elements within a pond.

5.4.8. 13.38 – Downstream and Upstream Traps [ANMTN]

5.4.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW When we convert farms from the Both types of traps are essential in self-stocking ponds. The downstream tramp is a piped monk with a screen, preventing fish from escaping, and it also has a nylon bristle ramp that fish can climb up to stock the pond from downstream. As the fish grow, they are transferred to the upstream side of the pond, where water is coming through a screen, monk, and horizontal screen to prevent fish from escaping. There is also a trash screen on the upstream side so that the water coming through is clean.

5.4.9. 13.39 – Ponds as Part of the Landscape Mosaic [VIDEO]

5.4.9.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Examine where ponds fit functionally within the landscape mosaic - Generalize the percentages of features that go into making the typical humid landscape - List species that can benefit ponds BRIEF OVERVIEW Ponds need to be viewed as part of a landscape mosaic with forests, marshes, and prairies. Birds and crustaceans benefit from ponds inside marshes, and forests benefit from the phosphorus and soil created by ponds. Within these mosaics, there are lots of opportunities for edge interactions. In the typical humid landscape, ponds can be 15% of the landscape, marshes the same, and forests should be 30-60%, with prairies, crops, and pastures occupying the remainder. Marshes are generally upstream of ponds, forests are on the slopes, and meadow and crops are downstream to receive the water. Particular species can help ponds. For example, fibrous-rooted trees and freshwater mussels can add phosphate. With a fish pond, mulberries can be planted around it and seeded with silkworms. The mulberry leaves are rich in protein, and we can shake the silkworm larvae into the pond for the fish to eat. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Ponds are part of a landscape mosaic with forests, marshes, and prairies. - Humid landscapes should be a rough mix of 15% pond, 15% marsh, 30-60% forest, and 10-40% prairie and/or crop. - We can sequence things around ponds to benefit both systems.

5.4.10. 13.40 – Some Common Structures in Pond Landscapes [ANMTN]

5.4.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Rip lines and swales are high in the landscape to harvest seasonal water flows, and diversion drains direct water towards catchments. Irrigation canals can work as stepped chinampas. Tree lines conserve overland flows. Between catchments are lateral spoon drains with check dams transfer water passively.

5.5. Modules 13.41 to 13.50

5.5.1. 13.41 – Pond Construction for Edge Effect [VIDEO]

5.5.1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize the variance of edge-to-surface-area relationships due to pond shape - Identify the shapes that provide the least and the most edge effect - Summarize what each shape of pond might be best used for - Explain how two streams, one acidic and one alkaline, can work together BRIEF OVERVIEW Edge-to-area relationships vary greatly with shape. Round ponds of 75 square meters have only 32 meters of edge, whereas the equivalent square footage in a rectangle pond (2m X 37.5m) would have 79 meters of edge. A meter-wide pond that undulates for to be 75 meters long would have 152 meters of edge. This edge area is where we plant, so it is very useful. With the same depth and the same volume of water, we can hugely extend the edge effect with shape. Long, thin ponds can be easier to harmonize with sloped landscapes, as they can move out on contour. However, round ponds can be easier to work with when sealing or lining the pond is an issue. Rectangular ponds are much easier to shade. Round ponds in tanks function well for intensive rearing. Floating rafts can increase edge effect and provide habitat and fodder for small fish. Variations of pH levels are likely no lower than 4 to 6 for acidic waters and 8 to 11 for alkaline water. We can start with two different streams, one alkaline and one acidic, that form ponds for small frogs, crustaceans, and marsh plants. These can flow into baitfish, some of which are acidic and alkaline, and move into ponds for pan and predatory fish, screened to control passage. The two streams can join to form one large predator pond. Or, in a cross-shaped pond, different areas can be fenced off to separate different species of fish. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Edge-to-area relationships vary greatly with shape. - Circles have less edge than rectangles, which have less edge than curved lines. - Edge area is where we plant, so it’s very useful. - Curved ponds work well with sloped landscapes. - Round ponds work well for sealing or lining. - Rectangular ponds work well for trellised shading.

5.5.2. 13.42 – 75-Square-Metre Ponds [ANMTN]

5.5.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW To maximize edge effect, circles are poor, elongated canal shapes are adequate, but curved canal shapes work best. Mark As Complete

5.5.3. 13.43 – Four Ponds of the Same Area [ANMTN]

5.5.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW When considering ponds with same area, the shape makes a huge different in creating an effect for growing blueberries and mulberries, encouraging vegetation for fish feed, providing insect drop from edge plants, and irrigating nearby tree roots.

5.5.4. 13.44 – Separate but Interconnected Ponds [ANMTN]

5.5.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Separate, but interconnected ponds can create a flow a food in successive, trophic levels. Acidic waters (pH 4-6) can be feed in series, with peats and sands at the top feeding down to baitfish and finally to minnows. With alkaline waters (8-11), the top pond can be frogs moving down baitfish and finally to sunfish. Then, the two series can join to feed into a balanced pond with large-mouthed bass. Mark As Complete

5.5.5. 13.45 – One Pond with Complex Screens [ANMTN]

5.5.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW One pond can have many complex screens, acting as sequences in one body of water. Summer winds should be included for aeration, but winter winds excluded. Tiny screens separate tiny fish from grow-out fish to increasing size to harvestable. There should be woods around the edge, lawn on the sun side, and good edge feeding effects.

5.5.6. 13.46 – The Climatic Orientation of Ponds [VIDEO]

5.5.6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Outline how and why climate conditions can change the orientation of ponds - Note different site conditions that can determine where a pond is placed - List features that can be added to ponds to improve them BRIEF OVERVIEW Climate changes the orientation of ponds. In cold climates, oxygenation is less a concern than adding heat, some ponds might have trees on the shade side and be open to the sun. If the climate has cold winters but hot summers, the sun side might get deciduous trees to allow winter sun in but shade summer sun out. For wind to help with oxygenation, there might need gaps in the tree lines or wind tunnels. In hot climates, the shallows could be shaded with wide arbors that allow air movement below but block the sun from above. Pond usage is determined by site. On flat lands, oxygenation might be a concern, but there are lots of options for shaping. We adjust the shape of ponds to fit the landscape. Soils are also important, and clay makes a huge difference to the cost. Some sites, such as one that is slumping, simply shouldn’t have ponds. Even though our ponds tend to be modest, we still don’t want to build where there might be a catastrophe. We also focus on adding features. Swamp environments can be on the edge. A jetty can be a great place to work from, feeding and netting fish. Islands are sometimes cheaper than excavation. Good spillways are crucial: Water can enter through silt traps, planted to reeds to take out sediments, whereas it can exit through a well-grassed spillway. Ponds have much larger production potential than land-based systems, and they help with repairing systems downhill. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Ponds should be orientated in relation to climate. - Cold climate ponds should be open to the sun, while hot climate ponds will need some shade. - Windbreaks with gaps and/or wind tunnels can help with aerating ponds. - Pond use should be determined by the site: slope, soil, surroundings. - Features — swampy edges, jetties, islands, spillways — are all relevant to good design. - There is no better land use than ponds and forest.

5.5.7. 13.47 – Oxygen Less Important Than Heating [ANMTN]

5.5.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW In cold climates, ponds’ shelter, orientation, depth, and configuration are critical for keeping it warm for fish and plant growth, so it should be located to face the sun inside a micro-climate shelterbelt.

5.5.8. 13.48 – Cold Winter Winds and Oxygen in Summer [ANMTN]

5.5.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Due to cold winter winds, oxygen in the summer is important to extend the crop potential in the pond. Wind breaks can direct summer winds to make sure there is maximum surface disturbance for oxygenation.

5.5.9. 13.49 – Hot Most Seasons [ANMTN]

5.5.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW In hot areas, overheating of ponds can be reduced with trellises shading them, high-shade hedge rows, wind tunnels below hedge, and deeps on the shaded side. High westerly shade reduces late afternoon sun.

5.5.10. 13.50 – Variable Climate on Streams [ANMTN]

5.5.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW On streams, we create variable climates with wind aeration and shading, which can be done with trellises, hedgerows, and umbrella windbreaks.

5.6. Modules 13.51 to 13.60

5.6.1. 13.51 – The Furniture of Ponds and Marshes [VIDEO]

5.6.1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Give examples of water “furniture” that can increase yields or provide habitat - Examine how rafts can perform multiple functions on ponds - Analyze methods for using screening to create production and lessen maintenance BRIEF OVERVIEW Ponds can have all kinds of “furniture” that help to increase yield and provide habitat. Islands are great animal shelters and supply more edge, as do shelter bays, small hummocks, and peninsulas. Houses can be built on peninsulas. Trees and hedges can help to direct and channel winds. Refuges can be built in the bottoms of the ponds or, especially, marshes. There can be breeding substrates and/or different shelters—hollow logs, piles of gravel, plastic pipes—at the bottoms. Rafts are also versatile pieces of furniture. Houseboats can float around on ponds, and they can be connected to floating pathways. The pathways might have fish cages connected to them, with ring nets connect to them. There can be floating gardens, raft animal houses, observation platforms, floating solar panels, and raft feeding stations. Screens and fencing can be used to separate species, as can outlet and inlet traps. Vertical cones can be strategically placed to screen incoming water, pulling out the leaves and debris so they don’t end up in the pond. The goal is to design this most productive element to our benefit, so that we are getting the most out of the system and putting very little into it. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Ponds can have many types of furniture to increase yield and vary habitats. - Islands, sheltered bays, peninsulas, hummocks, and refuges all provide specialized habitat for animals. - Rafts can supply many options: floating homes, feeding stations, animal houses, gardens, solar panels, observation platforms, etc. - Screens can be used to separate certain species or remove unwanted inputs before they enter the system. - We are design to get the most productivity out of the ponds with the smallest inputs.

5.6.2. 13.52 – Breeding Substrate [ANMTN]

5.6.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Many different variations of breeding substrate exist: grassy slopes for carp, alternative flood and dry system, thatched shelters for cave breeders, and logs or drums for large fish. Gravels, sands, rock piles, mud caves, floating weeds, and bundles of reeds or twigs can all also be good egg sites.

5.6.3. 13.53 – Some uses of Rafts [ANMTN]

5.6.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Rafts can hold fish for rearing or hold ropes for catching spawn, shellfish, or algae. They can be used for observation of species. They can isolate a column of water with a glasshouse on top, or they can hold aquatic plants at appropriate depths. They can be used to breed, trap, and/or support invertebrate foods, or they can be used to carry solar panels.

5.6.4. 13.54 – Screens and Boards [ANMTN]

5.6.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Screens, boards, and fences can help with polycultural stocking in shallow waters, separating predators and forage fish. A Herguth monk incorporates a screen and level control board.

5.6.5. 13.55 – Fish Pond Configurations and Food Supply; Cage Culture [VIDEO]

5.6.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize that fish do well in cages but require flowing water to oxygenate them - Note that wet wells work well for transporting and harvesting fish - Understand beneficial uses of jetties BRIEF OVERVIEW Unlike animals, fish seem to thrive in cages, where they are safe but the water flow continues to move through. The flowing water oxygenates as it moves through, or in still water, the act of the fish swimming will oxygenate that water. Cages can even be designed to increase oxygen in flowing water. These traps can be an effective way for harvesting eggs, fry fish, prawns, mussels, eels, and so on. They produce the largest yield in aquaculture. There are also floating barges with wet wells with fish inside so that they can be transported to markets. As well, production systems can be off of floating walkways and jetties for easy harvesting. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Fish seem to thrive in cages with water flowing through them. - The water flow and fish swimming oxygenate the water. - Cages are effective for making harvesting eggs, fish, prawns, mussels, etc. easy. - Floating elements—barges, walkways, jetties—can all have cages attached to them. - These produce the largest yield in aquaculture.

5.6.6. 13.56 – Cage Culture or Cages to Hatch Eggs [ANMTN]

5.6.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Cage cultures have been used for centuries to protect and hatch eggs within a stream. Corfs are tradition floating barges with wet wells to hold live fish. Weighted, floated cages of slatted wood in large bodies of water will have water flow and can produce large yields. Moored and anchored cages can be used as well.

5.6.7. 13.57 – Farming Invertebrates for Fish Food [VIDEO]

5.6.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List methods for designing easy access to insects around ponds - Identify other food sources for the various forms of life in a pond BRIEF OVERVIEW Invertebrates production is invaluable for aquaculture because insects convert into good fish weight. Mounds of food wastes, leaves, and/or paper can be used to attract cockroaches and other insects, which can be sieved out as fish food. Termites will be attracted to half-buried drums filled with paper and cardboard. Other possibilities include attractions on the water, such as a solar light and fan set-up for nighttime or an anchored yellow float to attract grasshoppers. Insects are not the only possibility. Snails and slugs make great fish and duck food. Zooplankton can be cultivated in shallow, sloppy mud with food waste deposited in it. Hanging containers with rotting carcasses (this is smelly) will drop maggots into the water. Rampant grasses and plants growing along channel ponds will feed herbivories. Aquatic mollusks are good fish food. Worm farms can be floated atop the water or beside it for more food. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Invertebrates are great for increasing fish weight. - Our goal is to find ways to attract insects so that they can then feed the fish. - Other good fish food includes slugs, snails, maggots, zooplankton, rampant vegetation, aquatic mollusk, and worms. - We can design our systems to supply these within normal cycles.

5.6.8. 13.58 – Termite Breeder [ANMTN]

5.6.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Insects for feed can be produce in several ways. Termites be produced in drums with wood inside, axe cuts in the sides, and a sprinkler to keep it moist. Grasshoppers are attracted to buttercup yellow, so a tent or painted surface can be floated over a pond so that they fall into water. Bones attract flies and ants. Silkworms can be grown on mulberries overhanging the water. Cockroaches and spiders are attracted to rough mulch piles. Black soldier fly larvae are grown on fruit and vegetable scraps and will crawl out into the pond if grown on top of the water.

5.6.9. 13.59 – Farming Invertebrates for Fish Food; Fodder Pond Sequences [VIDEO]

5.6.9.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Realize the role that plants and mollusks play in absorbing nutrients - Outline the sequencing of ponds for cleaning water and producing fodder - Explain how living elements in cleaner ponds move down the sequence - Recognize the habitat needs of omnivorous and carnivorous fish in fodder pond sequences BRIEF OVERVIEW We can start with a small pond going down in a v-drain or spoon drain that feeds many take-offs with nutrient-rich waste water. At the top, the water is very dirty, and we are cultivating non-invasive, non-flowering plants with a little fruit around. These ponds will also have mussels, snails, some shrimps, tadpoles, as well as rotten logs and trellis. These are productive systems aimed at absorption. At the next level of ponds, the water will still be a little mucky, but we will begin to have forage fish. There will be a forest of useful species around the ponds. The small species from within the ponds above will now become food. From the forage fish ponds, the flow moves downward into ponds with forage and omnivorous fish eating a lot of vegetable waste. Here, the water looks cleaner, and the fish are larger and can even be harvested. Crop gardens, too, can be grown off this system. Finally, the flow reaches the point of being totally clean. The pond will have predatory fish, with high value, and much less of the organisms from the upper ponds. At this point, we’ve managed to clean with water with a sequence of fodder ponds and produce a garden along the way. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Several ponds are fed with nutrient-rich water from a small pond with an attached drain. - The top ponds have non-invasive plants, dirty water, and small aquatic life (no fish). This system is for absorption. - After the top ponds, the water is still a little dirty but will have forage fish and forests around them. - Forage and omnivorous fish ponds will be significantly cleaner and have harvestable fish, as well as gardens grown off the water. - The bottom pond will have totally clean water with predatory fish. - The fodder ponds clean the water and supply a garden in doing so.

5.6.10. 13.60 – Level of Pollutants in Ponds [ANMTN]

5.6.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW In the first layer of a trophic series, manures can be reduced by algae and zoo plankton. Invertebrates, such as shellfish, should occupy the next layer of ponds. Batfish then move into gambusia that move into predatory fish ponds with water plants grown on the edges. This is a downstream migration of nutrients, starting as pollutants and ending as benefits.

5.7. Modules 13.61 to 13.70

5.7.1. 13.61 – Channel, Canal and Chinampa [VIDEO]

5.7.1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Contrast the landscapes suitable for channels versus chinampas - Summarize what a chinampa is, including what it is used for - List different circumstances in which chinampas are a viable option BRIEF OVERVIEW These are great formulas for fish ponds. Channels can be deep, narrow, and long, so they work well for areas with more than eight degrees of slope, with water terrace being the only other option. Chinampas, though, are the most effective, productive systems, and they are a series of canals and banks in sequence. Chinampas are shallow lakes with canals dug and the mud from them is piled into land, maximizing the edge effect. The edges can then grow crops and forests, and trellis can extend from one to the next over the canals. There can be plenty of mussels and shellfish, as well as lots of fish. Boats can be used to harvest. Chinampas can be created in several different circumstances. Fingers at the edge of a lake can be used to create a chinampa system. Dammed and back-flooded valleys can have small islands and peninsulas to make chinamapas. Swamps are easily converted into a soil and water culture. This is the most productive and sustainable food system ever documented. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Channels, canals, and chinampas make great fish ponds. - Channels are good for slopes steeper than eight degrees. - Chinampas are the most productive food systems ever recorded. - Chinampas can be created at the edges of lakes, in dams, and from swamps.

5.7.2. 13.62 – Chinampas [ANMTN]

5.7.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Chinampas, an earth-water harmonic, are the most productive system ever. In flatlands, they can be harvested easily by boats. They have multiple layers of production: trees, crops, edge plants, floating plants, water plants, fish, and waterfowl. The depth is between half and 1.5 meters, with the banks going no more than two meters high. It is concentrated water and land production working together. In swamps, they can be more complex, with shallow and deep water areas, as well as high banks. On hillsides, there should be a flow-down effect, supplying aeration and irrigation. On terraces, water crop can be extended in shallow waters with fish in the deeps, and grain crops can be cultivated between the shallow aquaculture systems. Canals combined with chinampas on clay hillsides can provide multiple polyculture systems.

5.7.3. 13.63 – Yields outside the Pond [VIDEO]

5.7.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Outline the downhill flow with nutrient supply to increase and diversify production - Note that sustainable systems can be up to 50% devoted to supply chains BRIEF OVERVIEW With a downhill flow of nutrient supply, we can set up a complex set of systems. The nutrients can be provided by animal manure, which goes into biogas and alcohol production. From there, the nutrient goes into ponds, and these can have side cycles of worm and insect production, forage fish, and hatcheries. The water can then be used to grow water crops to feed the animals (and humans), and the excess nutrients can be utilized to cultivate other systems like forage forests to feed the animals and farm forestry to help with structures. We are setting up a system to work on a little inputs as possible, with up to 50% of it devoted to creating supply chains rather than outright production. Such a utilization of yields needs a large group of people working closely together. KEY TAKEAWAYS - With a downhill flow of nutrients, we can create complex systems of production. - Nutrients from animal manures can go into creating biogas and alcohol. - The waste from biogas and alcohol can feed into a productive pond, which irrigates water crops. - The water crops can feed animals and people, and the excess nutrients can grow forests. - These systems are meant to require few inputs, but they do require a group of people working together to maintain and monitor them.

5.7.4. 13.64 – Schematic of Integrated Pond System [ANMTN]

5.7.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW These can provide food, energy, and animal forage (for land animals). Tree forage leads, via fields and forests, lead to animal protein production. Animals create manure, which can produce alcohol and biogas, settling to water crop plants and fish. This can be used as side cycles of worms, compost, shrimp, and daphnia as feed for a pond polyculture. Acid cultures (5.-6.5) create aquatic food, and alkaline cultures create aquatic food. These can be linked to a flood bypass and river slope. The systems can produce land crop irrigation for fuel, food, forage, or structural production in lower sections.

5.7.5. 13.65 – Wetland Margins and Environment [ANMTN]

5.7.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW These are ideal environments for chinampas. The land-based edge should be focused on windbreaks, mulch, and fuel, with the bottom land trees suited to support trellised vine crop. Edge zone species can be planted, as well as water crops, such as taro. Banks separated by water can crop species like bamboo, water chestnut, horseradish, asparagus, and kang kong. These systems can be very abundant.

5.7.6. 13.66 – Bringing in the Harvest [VIDEO]

5.7.6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Realize that many water products don’t keep well so must be sold quickly - Give examples of preservation techniques used for fish - Explain why the largest fish shouldn’t be harvested and why products should be diverse BRIEF OVERVIEW A lot of products out of the water don’t keep, so while aquaculture makes fish available all over, market need to be set up to promote these crops so that they become recognized, typical items. Value and storage time can be increased by drying, smoking, freezing, and processing fish (into sauces, paste, fertilizers, etc.). It’s important not to sell the largest fish, as they are breeders, and instead focus on marketing medium-sized and smaller fish. It’s also advantageous for the aquaculturist to emphasis diversity in products—plants, trees, crustaceans, shellfish, fish—because these will help the system avoid diseases and maintain water quality. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Aquaculture makes fish available all over, but the market needs to be set up to sell it. - Drying, smoking, freezing, and processing fish will help to add value and storage time. - The largest fish are breeders and should be left in the system, with medium to small fish sold off. - Aquaculturalists should have diverse products to help keep the system healthy and clean.

5.7.7. 13.67 – Traditional and New Water Polyculture [VIDEO]

5.7.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List the basic needs for a family to provide a self-sustained existence - Recognize that shared water resources create self-governing communities BRIEF OVERVIEW There are exciting variations of retrofitted traditional and newly developed water polycutlures. Wet terrace and riverside cultures have been around for centuries, and the shared water systems create community organization that is self-governing. The unity of water equates to a sustainable culture. Water should be a public resource. A family of five only needs half a hectare of aquaculture, a quarter hectare of staple crop, and a hectare of food forest with small animals dotted throughout the system. With 400 person-days a year, this system can provide all of their needs, and this centers on the aquaculture spreading nutrient through the system to produce abundance. TAKEAWAYS - Wet terrace and riverside cultures have been around for ages, and the shared water system has created self-governing, sustainable communities. - Water should be a public resource everywhere. - A family of five needs half a hectare of aquaculture, a quarter hectare of staple crop, and a hectare of food forest with animals throughout the system.

5.7.8. 13.68 – Traditional and New Water Polyculture; Wild Rice [VIDEO]

5.7.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Provide a brief history and overview of the cultivation of wild rice - Summarize the grain output and integration of a cultivated wild rice system BRIEF OVERVIEW Wild rice grows from Canada to Florida, which means there is seed for any condition in this expanse. Its seeds have been collected as food throughout history. However, it ripens slowly, over several weeks, which means it isn’t suited for machinery. Traditional people would harvest regularly by canoe over a thirty-day period. The harvest is 200-500 grams per head, much higher than most grains. Spaced 20-35 centimeters, most of a family’s grain can be supplied with just 200-800 plants. Traditionally, people would tie together 20-30 plants to prevent seed loss and shattering. Seeds can be stored in jars in water over winter or refrigerator. We can also control the water, flooding and draining, to help with production. We can have cultivation throughout and around this system, and wild animals and plants will naturally flock to the system to produce a polyculture. This can also be done on the home garden scale. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Wild rice grows from Florida to Canada and has been eaten for millennia. - One head of wild rice yields 200-500 grams of grain, so it doesn’t require much space to produce a lot of food. - Systems set up for cultivating wild rice will naturally become polycutlures and can include more productively cultivated elements.

5.7.9. 13.69 – Wild Rice Culture [ANMTN]

5.7.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW This can be linked to chinampa trellis crops and land-based crops with flood rice paddies. As wild rice passes 30 days, it can be tied together to prevent seed shattering. Glasshouses over deep sections can change climates to increase diversity in both summer and winter. A wildlife interaction of many species can add to fertility.

5.7.10. 13.70 – Traditional and New Water Polyculture; Taro Culture [VIDEO]

5.7.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Outline taro as a crop: where it grows, which parts are useful, how it is cultivated - List the different elements that can be included with wet terrace taro polycultures BRIEF OVERVIEW Taro grows in the humid tropics, the subtropics, and up into the frost-free cool climates. They have large elephant-like leaves and big tubers, with special varieties for fermenting, boiling, and even eating the leaves as a spinach substitute. The plants are perennial and can be planted from either little side tubers coming off the big one or by simple putting the plant top back in the ground. They can get very large but a generally harvested at about one kilo or at roughly eight months. Taro is a traditional staple in Hawaii, Polynesian, and some of Southeast Asia. It can be grown in polyculture wet terraces. Tilapia is an easy fish to include. Azolla is a good mulch plant for the top. Crayfish, edible snails, prawns, mussels, and migratory eels are all possibilities for the system. Traditionally, the nutrients come from upslope forest leaves and rotting logs. The logs would support edible fungi. On the margins, banana, papaya, coconut, and sugarcane can be cultivated, and trellis of passionfruit, pole beans, and cucurbits can span over the channels. The taro should be planted 40-60 centimeters apart, and kangkong is the ideal plant between them. One hectare can supply 55 tons of taro. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Taro grows in humid tropics up to cool climates with no frost. - They have large elephant-like ears and a swollen, edible tuber. - It’s a perennial plant that can be cultivated using the tops of the plants or side shoots off the main tuber. - Normally, it’s harvested at about one kilo or roughly eight months. - Taro can be grown in polycutlures with fish, shellfish, other productive plants, and fungi. - One hectare of land can supply 55 tons of taro.

5.8. Modules 13.71 to 13.73

5.8.1. 13.71 – Taro Terraces [ANMTN]

5.8.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Taro terraces can get nutrients from in-pond biodigesters with surplus material released in series. Ducks can be fed from land forage. This will charge the biodigester, which releases into the water. The water is then cleaned up by crops like taro and water chestnuts. Terraces over ponds can provide surplus crops, and screened deeps can be habitat for prawns and crustacean. Fish production is possible, and mulch crops can be grown on the surface. Mussels provide phosphates and clean the water. This all adds up to a diversity of yield, which can then benefit a crop of rice or taro.

5.8.2. 13.72 – Modifications to Taro Fields [ANMTN]

5.8.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Water can be diverted from a stream, fertilized in crop, and returned to the stream free of pollutants. First, it passes through animal houses, moving onto logs rotting to produce fungi, into deep channels for fish and shrimp, and finally to deep taro paddies with side channels. Irrigation can be through papaya crop or bananas with trellises of cucurbits and beans, comfrey and taro for mulch and fish food, and coconut on margins.

5.8.3. 13.73 – Trompe [ANMTN]

5.8.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A trompe can trap air underground for use in workshops or aerating fish ponds. Falling 30 to 100 meters vertically from input water through a reverse air cone Venturi input, water will move at velocity faster than the air bubbles can rise, so that these air bubbles can be released into an air chamber. Water can then rise out from a well surrounding the fall pipe, up to 85% of the way back to its source, where it can be released or introduced to another fall system from more compressed air.

6. Module 14: Strategies of an Alternative Global Nation

6.1. Modules 14.1 to 14.10

6.1.1. 14.1 – Chapter 14 Course Notes

6.1.1.1. Introducing New Ethical Nations While most of this course has focused on building new landscapes and regenerating forests, we must also use this information to cause social and economic change. Our current systems invest in destructive, abusive undertakings, so we have to develop strategies counter to this. We are trying to grow systems that repair the earth, and our groups need to focus on achieving primary production, systems management, domestic nutrition, and economic viability in a global network of small, manageable arrangements. We have access to all we need for true wealth — clean food, nurturing environment, efficient shelters, real community — without the constraints of the economic power structure. From this foundation, we need to define problems and solve them locally, sharing that information for the benefit of all. This is the start of how we change. Continued...

6.1.2. 14.2 – Introduction to Strategies of an Alternative Nation [VIDEO]

6.1.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List the many societal changes that need to occur for the good of the planet/humanity

6.1.3. 14.3 – The Strategies of an Alternative Nation [VIDEO]

6.1.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize that practical permaculture is incomplete without societal changes - Summarize restructuring our roles to make a global network of small systems - Define true wealth as components outside the financial system BRIEF OVERVIEW Much of this course is about a practical approach to building new landscapes and regenerating forests, focusing on how to lighten our demands on the earth. However, this information is useless if we don’t act on it. Current systems invest in war, destruction, and land abuse, so we need strategies for social and economic modification. This is perhaps the most crucial step towards real change. Farmers are more skilled at ethical land management than bankers and lawyers, and they can lead the way to curing and preventing social and environmental problems. We are trying to grow systems for earth repair and, then, teach these systems. We need groups focused on these things — primary production, systems management, domestic nutrition, economy — and from them, we can create a global network of small, manageable systems. We have access to all we need to solve problems with food supplies, clean energy, and sensible shelters. This can largely be done without the constraints of the economic power structure, but it will provide us with true wealth: clean air, clean water, clean food, safe housing, and genuine community. Our strategies are the starting points of getting to these things, and that work begins where we are, defining problems and solving them locally. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Current systems invest in war, destruction, and land abuse, so we need strategies for social and economic change. - We need to grow systems for earth repair and teach others how to do the same, creating a global network of small, manageable systems. - We have access to all we need for true wealth: clean air, clean water, healthy food, efficient housing, and strong communities. - Our strategies are the start with defining problems and solving them locally, and they are not the end but rather the beginning of change.

6.1.4. 14.4 – Ethical Basis of an Alternative Nation [VIDEO]

6.1.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Relate the basis upon which sustainable societies are founded - Illustrate a total integrated system framework for society BRIEF OVERVIEW Without a common basis for action, there is no real nation. Sustainable societies have responsibilities to nature and fellow people, realizing that exploitative gains come at the expense of others. Lives working for destructive purposes makes us destroyers ourselves, so we need social and environmental responsibility, as well as our own financial and employment strategies, and we have to be investors in life. We can’t teach one ethic and live another. To do this, we must always learn and study as a total integrated system framework, not partitioning knowledge, and we have to take responsibility for the distant effects of our actions. With a mosaic of small systems, this is a realistic strategy, and we can get all the security we need by providing people access to what they need. The best security comes from teaching strategies, ethics, and resource management, allowing people quality leisure time to enrich cultural life. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We need a common basis for action to become a true nation. - Exploitative gains, via nature or workers, come at the expense of others. - We can’t live lives of work for destructive purposes, living one ethic and teaching another. - We have to learn total integrated system framework and be responsible for the distant effects of our actions. - Our best security is providing people access to what they need while teaching strategies, ethics, and resource management.

6.1.5. 14.5 – A New United Nations [VIDEO]

6.1.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Redefine what a nation means as something beyond prescribed borders - Realize that the majority have a common goal towards a cleaner, healthier world - Criticize a power structure that relies more on administrators than actors BRIEF OVERVIEW The United Nations is actually not united or representing true nations, as more people aren’t represented than are. The United Nations represses a majority of people who are a nation, those aspiring to a common ethic and similar culture rather than tied together by land or language. Our goal is to repair earth, seek peace, and direct all capital to these ends. There are thousands of organization, tribes, and NGOs representing this ethical majority, millions upon millions of people who want peace, clean forests, and an end to malnutrition, torture, and oppression. Our members outnumber those political parties or oppressive societies today. We don’t need a world center or paid administrators. Without this, we avoid power blocks. Without tax funding, we avoid inefficiencies, and we can share our resources in a humane alliance. We are a global nation, thinking the same way: actions guided by ethics. KEY TAKEAWAYS - The United Nations is not representing true nations, those aspiring to a common ethic and culture. - Our goal is repair earth, seek peace, and use all capital to reach these ends. - Thousands of organizations, tribes, and NGOs are the ethical majority working towards peace and a clean environment, working to end malnutrition, torture, and oppression. - We don’t need a world center or a paid administration to achieve these goals; rather, we can share resources in a humane alliance. - We are a global nation whose actions are guided by ethics.

6.1.6. 14.6 – Alternatives to Political Systems [VIDEO]

6.1.6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Analyze current political systems as competitive rather than cooperative - List the objectives a productive political system could actually solve - Differentiate between a global system guided by ecology and a personal one by religion BRIEF OVERVIEW We obviously need alternatives to political systems because governments are based in self-interest and impractical theory. They are set up for two-party competitions, but we need more information-centered responses to research, moving us towards stability in an ethical, non-threatening way. We have to transition to a cooperative (not conflictive), creative (not destructive) society that uses our differences rather than tries to eliminate them. People live according to rules of the local ecology in their history. Religion is a private, non-global characteristic with no need for comparison. Belief systems simply allow us to behave without guilt and with respect for our resources and culture. Increasing soil degradation, poor water quality, pollution, forest decline, unemployment, and famine can’t be solved by political, economic, and land use systems because political actions are short-term, power-centered policies. They aren’t life-centered. Instead, we have to independently make long-term changes in ourselves then our neighborhoods then our region. In the “under-regulated” world, houses can be built without bank loans, architects, or contractors. Usually, these homes are built of traditional materials, and they are climatically appropriate and functional. Local people build them with help from the local community. Everything need can be produce with the energy and resources of the community. Our restrictions aren’t finance but overregulation. Lands owned by the state or corporations promote urbanization, destroying the methods that have traditionally worked for us. Wars are constantly funded but not the right to preserve life. We have the right to vote, protest, form unions, and get legal advice, but we don’t have the right to protect of forest, build a house, grow food, and collect water are denied by regulations. We can have political affiliations when candidates or parties take a strong stand on good ecology and/or against pollutant industry. In this instance, ground support should be organized to help the candidate get elected. Otherwise, we can form local green or ecological parties, including bio-regionally, and in many countries, this is already happening. We can have common, grounding policies that leave room for local issues. We need general policy with the ethics as the core point of origin, and the specifics of the policy stay with the cultures, regions, and landscapes where they are applied. These policies need to be based on solutions that have already been found. When constructing a policy, we should first define and prioritize the problems we are addressing. Then, we need to state our intents and reasons for what is meant to happen, and this will be based on data collected on proven strategies. Ultimately, we need to list the problems by urgency, noting threats to resources and public costs. We are going after long-term effects. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Governments are based in self-interested, impractical theory pitting competition between parties. - We need to transition to cooperative, creative societies, instead of conflictive, destructive ones. - Religion is a private characteristic with no need for comparison, beliefs a way of living without guilt and with respect. - Political actions can’t solve our problems as they are short-term and power-centered. - We need life-centered changes that start within individuals, moving to neighborhoods and regions. - In “under-regulated” places, people can build homes out of traditional materials with community help rather than with loans, architects, and contractors. - Our restrictions for acquiring necessities isn’t finance but over-regulation. - Lands owned by the State or corporations promote urbanization, destroying methods that have worked for us. - With these regulations, we have the right to vote, protest, and join a union, but not to build a house, grow food, and collect water. - Candidates or parties that take a stand for good ecology or against pollutant industry might be worth supporting. - We can create green or ecological parties that start locally and spread throughout the bioregion. - Common policies can be grounding, while leaving room for local issues to be addressed. - We need general policies initiated by ethics then made specific according to cultures, regions, and landscapes. - Policies should be based on solutions already found, and they need to define and prioritize the problems being addressed.

6.1.7. 14.7 – Bioregional Organisation [VIDEO]

6.1.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain ways people can relate and organize themselves into regions - Recognize the vital roles that permaculture practitioners play within these regions - Outline the makeup of bioregional offices for helping local communities BRIEF OVERVIEW This is an association of residents from a recognized region, which can be defined in many different ways: shared watershed, tribal, language, town borders, suburban streets, etc. People usually identify themselves by their region, and they feel a local responsibility that equates to global outreach. It’s also easy to set-up neighbouring trade and aid via bioregional organization, and there is an inherent respect for the lifestyles of others, who live by understanding the resources of their bioregions. Generally, 7000 to 40,000 people will inhabit a defined region. Permaculture practitioners want to research the characteristics of bioregions because they will provide local, self-reliant strategies. We want to understand food and food support, shelter and buildings, livelihoods and support services, info and communication, security, social life, health services, transport services, and available appendices (maps and regional publications). These are practical resources necessary for a bioregion to function well, and with them, these associations can work anywhere in the world. A bioregional office helps people understand their local resources. It can be run by four to six consultancies, with others on call. It can act as a resource for other groups. It can help to identify open niches in the community, such as production jobs, and fill them. It can create viable trade and infrastructure with other communities. When biological resources continue to increase, a system is doing well, and a bioregional office can monitor this — animal populations, forests, etc. — and address any issues that arise. KEY TAKEAWAYS - A bioregional organization is an association of people from a recognized natural region. - People usually identify with their region and feel a local responsibility for it that provides a global impact. - Permaculturists want to research the characteristics of bioregion to create local, self-reliant strategies. - A bioregional office, run by a few consultants, can help to keep communities secure and informed.

6.1.8. 14.8 – Bioregional Organisation [ANMTN]

6.1.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW For bioregional organization, we have to assess the potential of the bioregion, regarding specific issues: food, shelter, livelihoods, information, security, social life, health, future, transportation, and appendices. When assessing food, we have to consider native and economic species, considering these elements with respect to plant and animal resources, integrated pest management, processing and preservation, market and outlets, and support services. Plant resources will have to include nurseries, collections, research institutes, seed exchanges, reserves, learning facilities, government departments, volunteer agencies, skilled people, publications, consultancies/contractors, growers, and a checklist of useful species. Animal resources include lists of breeders, species collections, breeders of aquatic species, reserves, demonstration farms, government departments, volunteer agencies and animal protection societies, skilled people, contractors/consultancies, publications, and produce. Integrated best management will need insectaries for predatory breeding, suppliers of safe-control chemicals/traps, information, management of stored food, references, and a checklist of common pests, predators, and safe procedures. For processing and preservation, there will have to be suppliers of equipment, facilities, information, sources of yeasts, product producers. Markets and outlets will need local markets, delivery services, wholesalers/exporters, co-op systems, retail outlets, market advisory skills, roadside/self-pick sales, packaging, and annual barter fairs. Support services address residue testing for biocides and nutrient content, soil/water/leaf analysis, hydrological services, fence/trellis suppliers, natural fertilizers and mulch material suppliers, farm machinery/garden/tool suppliers and repair services, land-planning services, material suppliers, and quarries. Shelters and buildings start with energy-efficient house design and non-toxic materials. Construction materials categorize into from timber, stone and gravel, plumbing/piping/drainage/roofing, bricks and concrete, tiles and surfaces, furniture and fittings, tools, research resources, current state of housing in region, and sources of toxins in buildings. Energy systems include home appliances, hot water and solar systems, space heating, power generation, appropriate technology groups, designers, sources of information, and reliable builders. Wastes and recycling should consider sewage and greywater disposal, compost, solid wastes disposal and collection of recyclables, and occupations based on waste recycling. Livelihoods has the criteria of socially useful work and well-made items. There should be community finance and recycling systems with barter and exchange, small business loans, community banking, land access systems, and legal and information services. Livelihood support services must have small business service centers, skills resource bank, self-employment, and training courses. Essential trades and manufacturing services and skills divvies into clothing, footwear, basketry, functional pottery, steelwork, functional woodwork, engines, functional glasswork, paper (including book trades), catering/cooking, drafting, and cleaning. Information systems, media services, and communication research provides essential community information, aids, and research. Communication networks have regional radios, regional news, audio-visual services, business communications, computer services, libraries, maps, bioregional contacts, standard documents. COMMUNITY AND SECURITY House and livestock security includes house-sitting, a neighbourhood watch, and cattle and livestock watch. Fire volunteers and reports Flood Bush, cliff, and beach rescue services Communication systems should have a report centre and emergency communications. Social life is assistance for isolated people to meet like-minded people. Introductory services Think tanks Expeditions Work groups Health services should be basic preventative and common ailment treatment, as well as necessary hospitalization, accident treatment, and local resources. Medical and pharmaceutical services Surgical and hospitalization services Gynecological and midwifery services Profiling the morbidity in the region should include accidents and injuries, infectious diseases, and addictions, as well as genetic/birth defects and nutritional problems. Future trends and potential threats to the region (as a series of research essays) Sea-level rises, greenhouse effect Ozone depletion Water pollution and biocides, radioactives and chemical waste pollution Financial collapse Policy making Transport Barge and sea systems Draught animal systems Joint or group delivery/cartage Innovations Transport routes Air and ultra-light crafts Appendices include maps and bioregional maps. Geological Plant systems Soils Sources and references to map suppliers Regions and parishes Land titles Access and roads Reserves and easements Rivers and water supplies If all of these essential systems are listed, deficiencies can be noted. Leaks of capital can be detected, and there are immediate and obvious jobs that are vacant and modest funding of these set-up. Then, capital can be allocated to train people to fill these gaps, supplying needs locally. This can ultimately be used as information and education for other regions.

6.1.9. 14.9 – Extended Families [VIDEO]

6.1.9.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Relate the importance of extended families as the foundation for community - Summarize some of the inner workings and responsibilities of extended families BRIEF OVERVIEW Extended families are a natural part of sustainable systems, and the affection between them is a foundation for morality. Villages and bioregions relate to a base, and there are familiar groups of common interest, helping to displace competition. Cooperation with other families can begin a tribe, and 20-40 cooperating tribes can found a nation with the welfare of its members at its heart. Most people have 3-5 close friends and the support of 20-30 acquaintances. Their shared ethics helps them stay connected and allows for resource sharing. Family resources can be shared, and social interactions can be arranged to strengthen these ties. Child care and elderly care can be a shared responsibility amongst groups. Multi-cultural households will greatly suit peaceful lifestyles. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Extended families are naturally part of sustainable systems, with common interests displacing competition. - With 3-5 close friends and 20-30 supportive acquaintances, shared ethics and resources help to increase connections. - Multi-cultural households and families help to increase peaceful lifestyles. - Child care and elderly care becomes a shared responsibility.

6.1.10. 14.10 – An Ideal Demographic Profile for a Steady-State Nation [ANMTN]

6.1.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A nation of 30,000 people (20 families or tribes) can be separated into units of 1000 people. At birth, there are about 102 males per 100 females, but male numbers generally deplete at an earlier age than females. With rapid population explosions, there comes pressure on resources. Then, in other places, an aging population creates other problems with regards to work and trade.

6.2. Modules 14.11 to 14.20

6.2.1. 14.11 – Schematic for an Individuals Probable Relationships [ANMTN]

6.2.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW An individual extends out into relationships within households, as well as blood relatives and closest friends. This individual also exists within a clan of 20-30 people, as a part of a region or neighbourhood. Beyond this, there is a “family” of international people, 300-2000, and outside of this, there is a bioregion of 15-100 clans. Finally, there is a nation or federations of 3000-40,000 people that interacts on a global level. This will create an overlapping relationship with other nations.

6.2.2. 14.12 – Trusts and Legal Strategies [VIDEO]

6.2.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Define nonprofit trusts in terms of their connections to community - List the reasons behind, and the necessities for, creating trusts - Differentiate between the types of trusts that can be used for village development BRIEF OVERVIEW Nonprofit trusts in public interests serve and help people in various ways through various sources, such as churches, research institutes, hospitals, schools, aid programs, and charities. These programs are often owned and operated by charitable trusts and linked to nonprofit business to self-fund. Trusts created for trading purposes can give their profits to named beneficiaries, with individuals being taxed but not charities. Many people and businesses use this for tax write-offs and fostering goodwill from the public. Trusts can be run by three readily available directors, and the purpose should be clearly and legally stated. Charitable trusts can create nonprofit trading trusts in order to pay volunteers and fund costs, and they can have allied trusts, which will receive profits should the original trust dissolve. Trusts should have an optimistic statement of redundancy, such as no one is left hungry. Trusts, then, are long-lasting, efficient, easy to administrate, and perform great public services. Many independent, cooperative permaculture institutes connect to nonprofit trusts, and it is better to have many small, local trusts instead of one large one, which tends to get caught up in bureaucracy. A trust needs a lawyer who knows how to set it up correctly, good bookkeeping, and an organized office manager. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Nonprofit trusts can be owned and operated by charitable trusts to serve and help people. - Charitable trusts can be linked to nonprofit business in order to self-fund. - Trusts need three directors who are easily contacted. - Allied trusts can receive the profits should the original charitable trust cease. - Trusts are long-lasting, efficient, easily managed, and beneficial to the public. - Many independent but cooperative permaculture institutes are connected to nonprofit trusts. - Lots of small local trusts are better than one large trusts. - Trusts need a lawyer to set them up, a good bookkeeper, and an organized office manager.

6.2.3. 14.13 – A Trust Structure [ANMTN]

6.2.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A trust company formed for a purpose can have three or four local people as directors, administrating a registered deed of trust establishing the purpose of the organization, which has a name chosen by the founders and is set up from a foundation gift.

6.2.4. 14.14 – Charitable Trusts [ANMTN]

6.2.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Trust A is for the public good and insures that all real property — land, copyrights, leases, and equipment — are not at risk, i.e. clear of debt. Trust B is to trade and gift profits. It accepts volunteer and paid employees, and it can be involved in areas of risk, such as businesses and leases. The trustee companies can share directors and the non-profit as a trading trust, operating under the trust deeds. The main beneficiary is Trust A, while Trust B can pay wages and costs, as well as give to other charities or trusts.

6.2.5. 14.15 – Development and Property Trusts [VIDEO]

6.2.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Point out how trusts can be used to ensure community survival and involvement - Give examples of possible projects that small trusts can concentrate on - Outline a possible trust set-up for developing a property BRIEF OVERVIEW Trusts can be set up appropriate for village development and land rehabilitation, with creative investments going to reforestation, preservation, and land rehabilitation. Trusts will act as financing for community survival and community involvement. Land can be purchased and easily improved with small investors taking on leases they would normally not be able to afford. Proper improvement of land being developed will then increase the real estate value. The areas of development concentration should be land rehabilitation and village development, particularly aimed at saving wildlife and forests. With a ceiling of 10-20 million dollars invested in developing the property, individuals can invest $500-$1000 dollars in single units without limits on what one person can invest. Investors can then be informed of opportunities through regular newsletters, with four to eight percent of the funding having gone to administration and the rest to development. These trusts can operate on specific projects: areas of threatened wildlife, areas of threatened land, energy-efficient village development, specialized development (nurseries, permaculture, aquaculture, etc.), clean transport systems, and so on. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Trusts can be appropriate for village development and land rehabilitation. - Land can be purchased, it can be easily improved, and small investors can take affordable leases. - With a ceiling of $10-20 million to property development, people can invest in $500-$1000 units. - A small percentage of funding can go to administration (4-8%) and the rest to development. - Projects can be concentrated on wildlife protection, land rehabilitation, energy-efficient village development, nurseries, permaculture, and so on.

6.2.6. 14.16 – Property or Equity Trust Schematic [ANMTN]

6.2.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW These work to develop projects that are then managed by a group. The profits of the project re-invests 4-8% for the office and staff. A trustee can be involved in the management group, and the trust funds come from investors. To manage projects, it is necessary to involve people who want to invest in ethical, sustainable project work. 10% is held for the repurchase of units, with a buy-back guarantee. There will be an established purchase, prospectus, and design of projects managed for the greater good of sustainable development. Projects will be addressed in a sequence of 1-10 years, as funds are available. Then, there is a possible sale or disposal of trust properties once they are up. Then, everyone can be involved in designing and investing in a sustainable future.

6.2.7. 14.17 – Village Development [VIDEO]

6.2.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize how important ethical village development is to the idea of permaculture - Break down how a village development should strive for specific goals - Provide a statistical analysis of how to approach shared property development BRIEF OVERVIEW Good, ethical real estate development for villages is needed more than anything else. Design groups partnered with financers and project managers can purchase lands and capitalize as diverse features are involved. These can be climate refuges for urban people or villages for like-minded people. Village should be developed with the goals of creating clean food, clean energy, efficient shelter, self-reliance, reduced need for money, village employment, and surplus production. Non-material needs will include education, a meaningful environment, community cooperation, home privacy, access to shared equipment, entertainment, conservation, and recreation. It’s easier to achieve these types of goal in cooperative villages of 30-100 homes rather than individually. Villages provide the possibility of services and jobs. It begins by finding appropriate land and acquiring investors. This requires careful, forward planning. Generally, 30% of the sale price of titles should covers the cost of land and development. 60% of the land should be sold to the village at the best price possible, and the remaining 40% can be divided up, with 10% going to the developers and 30% to the village group. The village group can then sell a small percentage of their land to finance projects, use a percentage to attract people with crucial skills, and reduce pricing on a small percentage for low-income families. Sites for village developments include many options. They can be in existing cities and suburbs, slowly bought up as pieces, or they can be next to existing villages, using and extending those resources. They could be in partly vacant or abandoned villages, pioneered on new sites (the most intensive), or set-up on sites of pre-existing/vacant villages. They can be new subdivision developments. The essential criteria for a village development has many facets. Firstly, there needs to be adequate water. Clean energy — wind, solar, water, and/or wood — potential is necessary. Transport, be it road, rail, or water, is integral, as is internet. Access to forests is important, and there either needs to be existing or the option to develop aquaculture, agriculture, and markets. The procedure for establishing a new village starts with forming a group, finding a site, and hopefully purchasing the property on good terms. Then, there will need to be approval for the development, which might include such things as road access, establishment of the number of allotments per hectare, required services provided by developers, and the projected stages of development. After that, detailed plans and estimates of cost must be created, and those must be officially approved by signature. Finally, the property can be sold to buyers, using a trust for road, water, and site development. When costs are cleared, the profits should be assessed, and the next project can begin. Financing can begin in several ways, but then it should be put into trusts. At the start, developers can supply all the funds, or they can look for investors. Otherwise, potential buyers can get together to form a trust. Funds should then be released in stages of development. “Trust A” should be established with risk-free investment to hold common village lands, and a separate “Trust B” should be established for investments in trade and such. The common area will include lands, as well as community structures, such as schools, commercial areas, and primary production buildings. Trusts should be managed by only a few skilled — real estate, developer, lawyer — people, who accept input from the others. The size of the population changes the ability for villages to provide resources. One hundred income-producing people can remain a neighborly village base. At 500 people, everyone can still know each other via social events. At 2000, things begin to break down to crime and a devolved ethical system. The goal is start small, at about 30, and build up slowly, ideally to around 300-500. This will make manufacturing and trading alliance viable with other villages. The functional efficiency is much higher when everyone knows each other. Self-reliant villages need to supply many things. Land and infrastructure clean energy, water, sewage, commerce, and production all to be included. Workshops, reception areas, and campgrounds should all be part of what the common community provides. Trust B can provide shared resources for rental. Housing should include options for families, singles, low-income, and advanced-age situations. Life, work, and recreation can all be part of the plan, as can food, forests, and standard energy efficiency to minimize the demand on centralized systems. Once established, maintenance of common services can be financed with different systems: by sales of 30% of titles in village trust, yearly levies on each family/property, and village business tithing 10%. Village money can be set-up and validated within the community, and there can be multiple opportunities for self-employment: food, energy, health, construction. Most people can have one main occupation or couple skills. Villages can look at setting up 100% waste recycling, and this already exists in many places around the world. Some of these systems even provide cash benefits to households. Recycling starts with customers sorting waste, and there is a schedule for picking up particular types of waste and specific days. Organics will be composted and sold. Those who don’t want to sort can be charged high rates to help subsidize the scheme. In the end, these systems will employ people and make money. There is nothing that can’t be recycled in some way today, so any new development should aim for 100% waste recycling. In five to seven years, a village may reach financial self-reliance, which will provide people with stability and ease. At this time, there must be a decision in aim of the business: affluence or assistance. In general, people only need healthy food, small luxuries, money to travel, and friends. Extra money can be used to help those in need, creating a secure society of interdependent people. Money is of no use if it’s destructive. Instead, we use it to help and create coalitions with other villages, taking advantage of what they have to offer as well. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Ethical real estate development for villages is hugely needed. - Design groups can partner with financers and project managers to make a full development team. - Villages should be designed to meet both material and non-material needs of the villagers. - It’s easier to meet development goals as a village of 30-100 houses rather than independently. - Village development begins with finding appropriate land and investors, and it requires good forethought. - Villages can be sited within cities and suburbs, on old village sites, or pioneered anew. - Necessities for development include water, clean energy, transport, internet, forests, aquaculture, agriculture, and market areas. - Villages begin with a group finding a site and purchasing it on good terms, after which they must go through the legal obligations to develop. - Sites can be financed by developers, investors, or buyers, but should include two trusts: one of risk-free investment and one for developmental risks. - Trusts should be run by only few skilled managers, following the input of the community. - The size of a population dictates potential resources, and 300-500 is ideal. - Self-reliant villages need land, infrastructure, energy, water, commerce and production areas, reception spaces, sewage, shared resources, and housing options for varied situations. - Villages can be financed with the sale of titles in the village trusts, levies on properties, and small tithing from businesses. - Villages should strive for 100% waste recycling. Systems start with customers sorting waste for scheduled pick-up days. - Recycling systems can be profitable and employ people, as well as provide benefits to households. - When villages reach financial self-reliance, they must decide on an aim: affluence or helping others. - For happiness, people only need healthy food, small luxuries, money to travel, and friends. - Money is useless if it’s destructive, so we can use to help others, even creating coalitions with other villages.

6.2.8. 14.18 – Effective Working Groups and Right Livelihood [VIDEO]

6.2.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain how small groups can more efficiently complete tasks than governing boards - Outline the basic sizes and organization of efficient groups - Summarize how to initiate and grow groups more effectively for the future - Point out the attributes that make successful intentional communities BRIEF OVERVIEW Groups governed by boards are impractical and time-consuming. Small working groups want to achieve jobs. They can be set up by requesting volunteers and agreeing on a timetable, or if no one comes forwards, contractors will have to be paid for the task. For maintenance tasks, rosters of one to three people with a worksheet and schedule can perform tasks without meetings, and their progress can be available to everyone through shared notes. Groups have to have a shared ethic and objective to do their jobs well. Small groups reach fast agreements and a general understanding of duties. Four to six people can take on large tasks. Seven to 20 people are good for social and recreational teams, but at seven or more, a chairperson is required, thus slowing down progress. 30-40 people are minimal for must human functions to be covered. 40-200 works for a regional organization, and 200-300 can maintain genetic diversity and population size. 300-600 is the top size for name recognition, schools, and cooperatives with personal attention. 1000-5000 is the upper limits for a federation of tribes and the village size limit. 7000-40,000 is for towns and large bioregions and should be broken up, and this is the largest amount that can be viably controlled by a strict hierarchy. 150,000 to 10 million equates to cities, which have disorganization, crime, and social isolation. It’s best to begin with small, effective groups of one to three and slowly grow into 30, filling deficiencies with sought-after members. Large jobs requiring lots of people power can be instigated by organizers sending out a calendar, and small groups can respectively get things done, with inactive people having no say. One solution systems originate from concentrations of power, whereas group meeting should be social, pleasant exchanges of information. Two to three people can run a large network of groups, but people will be the most difficult part of a design. Often during economic downturns, people establish intentional communities, and the ones that are successful establish interdependence, live simply, and have contributions — be them financial or labor — from all parties involved. The infrastructure provides various livelihoods, and people share in the cost and upkeep of the community. Work is meaningful: Self-defined people are self-employed or involved in communities, whereas meaningless work has people working to hold jobs that make them unhappy. Right livelihood is something we can all have, and people can fulfill much more than singular roles. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Small working groups, without boards, are the most efficient way to achieve tasks. - Groups that have shared ethic and goal can perform tasks without meetings and keep others updated with accessible notes. - Villages should be no more the 600 people, and bioregions shouldn’t extend past 40,000. - It’s best to begin groups with one to three people and have them grow out slowly to 30, filling in deficiencies with new members. - We can all have fulfilling work with multiple roles and intrinsic worth.

6.2.9. 14.19 – Aid and Assistance in Areas of Need [VIDEO]

6.2.9.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize that permaculture focuses on cultivating resources and maintaining local identity - Relate how education and the local community are the key to successful aid programs - Point out that long-term problems are not solved by short-term solutions BRIEF OVERVIEW Informal economies, based on fair dealing, objective value, and hospitality, are more desirable than financial interactions. Money has taken over mobile societies and given a false sense of security, created with the destruction of real wealth: our natural systems. Money is not a resource but a representation, and it has no use in true life-threatening crises. Clean air, water, plants, and energy from the sun are real wealth that extends life, but material resources for displays of opulence are the reason why we have false wealth. In this cases, money is valued over natural resources. Money, though, is not evil; it’s the exploiting of people and nature to get it that is evil. Like water, money flows with the longest path over the longest amount of time create the most production. Generative assets, like tools and processors for raw materials, and procreative assets, like gardens, have extending characteristics. Degenerative assets will often create an oversupply of something that results in eventual collapse. Information and education are likely our best use of all assets, and conservation assets—forests, dams, storage—guard resources of future use. Informal economies operate through community barter clubs, using debits and credits for hours spent. Goods and services are bartered within this system. LETs (local employment trade) operate within local groups, trading local “green dollars” in exchange for goods and services. All members can know the balance of all members, and while credits and small debts can accrue, the community account is always balanced. Businesses can even be paid partly in dollars (for parts) and LETs (for labor). This currency then is issued by working and selling alone. There are also pure volunteer labor exchanges, in which working provides something beneficial to the community or gifts. Formal economies are subject to accounting and taxation, but cooperatives can benefit a larger membership. They are a legal entity with limited liability, in which everything is set up to benefits members and membership open anyone willing to accept the responsibilities. This is democratic organization: Members elect administrators, and all surpluses are shared. Cooperation between cooperatives is encouraged and extends the function. Local businesses benefit from the use of local currencies, and printing local money is now accepted in lots of places. Local currencies prevent the hoarding of money, as it is only valuable when used, which help local business. This can also be used with shared common services, such as marketing, labeling, skilled work, research, bookkeeping and so on. Leasing of common equipment is another to enable business to use publicly owned, privately rented items that pay for themselves over time. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Informal economies are more functional than financial interactions. - Money creates a false sense of security because it’s not resource useful in life-threatening situations. - Nature is our real source of wealth: Clean air, water, plants, and energy from the sun extend life. - Money is not evil; rather, exploiting nature and people to acquire it is. - Flows of money, like water, are most fertile when they more on the longest path over the longest period of time possible. - Information with education is probably our best use of assets. - Informal economies operate on barters for goods and services. - LETs are “green dollars” exchanged between local communities for goods and services. - There can also be volunteering, exchanged for communally beneficial things or gifts. - Formal economies involve accounting and taxation. - Cooperatives are limited liability, legal entities that help members gain benefits and are open to anyone willing to take the responsibility of membership. - Creating local currencies are a great way to booster local business and prevent money hoarding.

6.2.10. 14.20 – The Final Limit to Development [VIDEO]

6.2.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Realize economies must give up the notion of continuous growth in a finite world - Summarize major changes that can move us towards earth care over financial gains BRIEF OVERVIEW Our economic systems must give up the concept of continuous growth in a finite world, and we must begin to concentrate on the end-game potential, with rules of earth care being more than about financial gains. Agriculture needs to move near to population centers and farmers need to convert into rangeland foragers. Broad-scale graziers and monoculture farmers should be offered an option to be land managers of their acreage moving back to wilderness. Then, humans can take their place as worthy stewards of a very abundant world. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Our economic systems must give up on continuous growth in a finite world. - Earth care must be about more than financial gains. - Agriculture needs to move nearer to population centers. - Distant industrial farms need to be stewarded back into wilderness. - We need to become worthy stewards of an abundant world.

7. Module 8: Soils

7.1. Modules 8.1 to 8.10

7.1.1. 8.1 – Chapter 8 Course Notes [PDF]

7.1.1.1. Soils: A Big Subject In this chapter, we probe soils, perhaps the largest topic for exploration in the known universe. Soil life, especially, is a varied and vast subject, moving all the way from large mammals to microorganisms to plants. We will also be covering the geology and physiology of the soil, as well as how soil is created, what the different types of soil are, and how we can facilitate soil creation and improvement. Without soil, without increasing its quantity and quality, our systems cannot be sustainable, so this is a very important chapter. Continued...

7.1.2. 8.2 – Introduction to Soils [VIDEO]

7.1.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Discover that soil is a huge subject, and includes many facets of study - Realize that our goal is to become facilitators of soil improvement BRIEF OVERVIEW Soils is an enormous subject, probably the biggest there is to cover in the known universe, particularly when we delve into soil life. In this chapter, we will cover not only soil life but also geology, physiology, soil creation, and the important variations in soil types. Ultimately, we must learn to become facilitators of soil improvement and creation because, without increases in soil quantity and quality, systems cannot be sustainable. At the end of this section, it is important that you have gained the confidence for engaging with soil in a positive manner. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Soil is likely the largest subject in the known universe. - This chapter covers soil life, geology, physiology, soil creation, and soil variations. - We are learning to become facilitators for increasing soil quantity and quality. - Without the constant creation of more fertile soil, a system cannot be sustainable. - You must gain the confidence to engage with soil as a positive input.

7.1.3. 8.3 – Soils [VIDEO]

7.1.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Generalize about how to work with soil - Name some of the major issues (and their causes) we are facing with soils today - Recognize the need for modern agricultural systems to change their approach to soil - Explain the origins and evolution of soil and how to recreate it in our systems BRIEF OVERVIEW Due to varying conditions, it’s not possible to be exact in how we must treat soils. Mainly, though, we are working to achieve good structure and permeability, and this comes through good organic content. Organic content also helps us to moderate acidity and alkalinity. Soils have been studied for centuries, but we are still losing topsoil—a basic need—at an alarming rate each year. Without good soils, society will inevitably collapse. On average, soil creation occurs at four tons per year per acre from the interaction between rainfall and plant growth. At this rate, the input and output needs are breaking even. Unfortunately, an average of thirty tons per year per acre is being lost through our agricultural systems. This is due to over-tilling, especially in mass grain production, allowing soils to wash away in streams and rivers, as well as blow away in the wind. But, we don’t have to do this. Soils are also becoming salty. The main cause of this phenomenon is deforestation, which is often occurring quite far away from the areas with high salinity. In these areas, salty water falls then evaporates, leaving behind salt deposits. Normally, rains would fall on forests, which absorb it into the trees and soil. Trees then transpire the water into the atmosphere, and the rich, organic soil takes in the salt, slowly feeding it to the streams and rivers. When the forest is removed, the rain begins to run off quickly and, without protection from the trees, evaporate, leaving salt at the surface. This is how desertification occurs. We must maintain our topsoil and forests through sustainable agriculture and forestry. Despite our increased knowledge of soils, few rehabilitation efforts are underway, and it’s something we have to concentrate on. We can’t focus on what soil is there; instead, we need to think of how to evolve it. Small farmers and ground-level practitioners are learning this firsthand because real results come from doing, not only thinking. We need to set examples to inspire larger scale application. Soil is formed by rock types, climate, and landforms, and water plays a major role in that. Rains, which are mildly acidic, help to break down rocks and begin the process of mineralizing the soil. This encourages life, which helps to further spread nutrients and to expose more mineral particles. Only in life-rich landscapes—forests, shallow lakes and ponds, and permanent prairies—are actually conserving soil. Heavily mulched, no-till systems are achieving the same, but at a slower rate of soil creation. These elements of soil creation are what we must concentrate on to have any kind of sustainable future. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Soil treatment isn’t exact but varies with conditions. - Soil structure and permeability come from good organic matter. - Good organic matter also allows gases and minerals into the soil, as well as moderates acidity and alkalinity levels. - We are currently losing topsoil every year due to unsustainable agricultural practices. - Soil salinity is also on the rise due to deforestation, often in areas remote from where salt deposits occur. - We have to concentrate on creating topsoil and forests in order to achieve sustainable practices.

7.1.4. 8.4 – Soil and Health [VIDEO]

7.1.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Compare the productivity of mass agriculture and permanent systems - Criticize industrialized production methods as more destructive than productive - Analyze the benefits of diversified gardens, both for our own health and the soil’s - Discriminate between what makes a healthy diet and one that is lacking BRIEF OVERVIEW Mass production agriculture seemingly can’t be matched in yield until it’s examined through an energy audit, the energy in to the energy out. As well, we must consider time. These high energy systems only last sixty to seventy years, in any climate, after which time the soil is completely spent. In this way, permanent systems outperform mass-production agriculture in the long run. In the end, the mass production systems destroy soils, which destroys societies. In reality, we only need to use about six percent of the land currently occupied by these industrial systems to produce the same nutritional yield. We can reposition agriculture around populations with diverse urban gardens, perimeter main crops, and range lands and forestry beyond those centers. Soils and plants have complex interactions, and historically, we have diversified gardens. But, industrialized farming changed that. Now, systems have simplified, which has created a reliance on antibiotics and biocides in the food chain, and these elements move from the soil to the food to our bodies. People used to adapt to local soils and the natural antibiotics and nutrients provided by them, but that’s been lost in global food production. Now, it’s going to take years to recover our degraded soils and even longer to deal with those that have been contaminated. In some areas, forestry will be the only safe option for the next few decades. In other words, we must stop contributing to this. Though what is healthy is widely debated, there are a few things we can see with certainty. Humans have historically led healthy lives by having mixed omnivorous diets and active lifestyles. Developed countries are now plagued with health problems due to an oversupply of processed food and toxic elements within them. Areas prone to famine, low in minerals and nutrients, suffer with radical changes in diets, as traditional diets have balanced these needs and locals are not adapted to handling new grains and pulses. The interaction between food, soil, fertilizer, biocides, and pesticides is very complex, and the current system of yield by weight rather than nutrient, of oversupplying macronutrients, has created food with less micronutrients. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Industrial agriculture system is inefficient when looked at in terms of energy, as well as time. - We can use only six percent of the land currently occupied by industrial agriculture to produce the same nutritional content. - We need to reposition agriculture into diverse urban gardens, main crop cultivation at the perimeter of population centers, and range land and forestry beyond that. - Plants and animals retain antibiotics and chemicals and pass them onto us when they become food. - Historically, healthy humans have a mixed omnivorous diet and an active life. - Developed countries are plagued with health problems brought on by processed foods. - Radical changes in diet for people in places prone to famine can be disastrous. - Agriculture techniques that oversupply macronutrients are creating food deficient in micronutrients. - Permaculture design can provide a healthy life, with good hygiene, healthy plants and animals, moderate exercise, clean water, happiness, positivity, and mental stimulation.

7.1.5. 8.5 – Tribal & Traditional Soil Classification [VIDEO]

7.1.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Employ traditional ways of assessing soil - Recognize vegetative indicators of soil conditions - List other practical considerations for determining soil conditions BRIEF OVERVIEW There are many traditional ways to assess soil. Looking at the color can likely tell us about the content of organic matter, which turns soils darker. Tasting the soil can tell us about its pH balance, with acid soils tasting sour and alkaline sweet. Sand content can be noted by hearing and feeling the soil as it is rolled in our hands. Texture works in a similarly way, telling us the physical content by whether a soil is crumbly or falls apart, as well as how it behaves when it’s wet and dry. Vegetative indicators are signs of what condition the soil is in. Of the thousands of seeds in a square meter of soil, the ones that germinate are doing so because of certain conditions. Plants with deep taproots indicate compacted soil, whereas loose soil is more likely to have bushy plants with hairnet roots, working to keep the soil together. Recently burnt soils will have plants like ferns and blade grasses because their roots can harvest potassium, an important nutrient lost in the fire. Weeds are not the problem; rather, it is the deficiency causing the weeds that is the problem. There are other simple considerations that make huge differences to soil. We have to consider its drainage, the slope its on, and the elevation at which we are working. Animal behaviors, such as the shape and size of termite mounds, can tell us about the condition and moisture content of soil. The amount of work required to grow certain crops can tell us the quality of soil we are working with, guiding us towards choosing suitable crops. For example, strawberries would grow well in slightly acidic soil, but brassicas, like kale, would perform much better in something slightly alkaline. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Traditional techniques can tell us a lot about soil. - Using our senses — looking at the color of soil, tasting it, feeling it, listening to it roll in our hands — can inform us about all sorts of things. - Vegetative indicators can tell us about soil conditions. - Drainage, slope, elevation, animal behaviors, and crop performance all indicate something about the soil.

7.1.6. 8.6 – The Structure of Soil [VIDEO]

7.1.6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Generalize the contributing elements and natural structure of soil - Perform a simple jar test to understand soil content - Name the two main observations to consider when observing soil - Relate the prevalence, components, and process of creating topsoil BRIEF OVERVIEW Soils are varied and complex. The smallest particles are clay, which act as a glue, sticking soil elements together, and it can be easily compacted. However, soil is not naturally compacted but has crumbly structure, which is ideal for allowing air and water to penetrate it. Topsoil is an extremely thin layer covering the earth’s surface. It’s composed of silica, oxide of iron, aluminum, and other mixed minerals. Water within the soil can be both fresh and saline, and it has dissolved minerals. Gases from the air and from the breakdown of rocks are present, and life — from tiny fungal spores to enormous fungi, from bacteria to large mammals — is abundant throughout topsoil, more even than above it. There are also former living things decomposing. A jar test is a simple way to begin understanding what type of soil is present. By filling a jar halfway with soil then filling the remain space with water, shaking it up, and allowing the soil to settle again, we can determine its basic composition. Coarse grit material will settle at the bottom, followed by layers of coarse sand, silt, clay and finally organic matter. Then, clear water will remain on top. Two main ideas to keep in mind when observing soil structure are clay content and the crumb structure. Clay content for building dam walls needs to be no less than forty percent, without slightly less than that being okay for mud bricks. As for cultivation, it’s a crumb structure we are after, as it allows for between twenty and sixty percent of soil space to be occupied by gases and water. KEY TAKEAWAYS - The smallest particles in soil are clay, and they bind it together. - Soil is not naturally compacted but has a crumb structure that allows for easy penetration. - Topsoil is a very thin layer, usually about eight inches/200 millimeters, that covers the surface of the planet. - Soil is made up of different minerals, water, gases, life, and formerly living things. - A jar test can help to easily determine soil content. - Dam walls require at least forty percent clay content. - A crumb structure is what we are looking for when gardening.

7.1.7. 8.7 – The Jar Method [ANMTN]

7.1.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A soil’s composition can be tested reasonably accurately with a jar test, which is useful in dam construction, mud bricks, rammed earth, and general assessment. The jar should be filled halfway with soil then completely full with water and shaken until all the soil particles are suspended in the water. The jar then must sit undisturbed until all the soil settles, taking anywhere between a few hours and days. Coarse sand settles at the bottom, topped with sand, silt, clay, and finally organic particles. The sands and silt are largely silica, whereas the clay is mostly feldspars, and the proportions revealed will explain the potential of the soil’s use.

7.1.8. 8.8 – Soil and Water Elements [VIDEO]

7.1.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List the major elements that we find in soil - Question the effects of using NPK fertilizers to create bigger crops - Predict the outcome of using industrialized methods on soils BRIEF OVERVIEW Most of the 103 known elements aren’t an issue in soils. Primarily, we find silica, iron, aluminum, and — in specific cases — calcium. Soil’s main component is carbon, followed by the macro-nutrients of NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium). There are also minor nutrients, trace elements, and even micro-trace elements in the soil. In industrialized systems, we usually start with bare soil and grow a crop for profit. To make our yield larger, we add fertilizer (those NPK macro-nutrients), which must be washed in with water so that it goes to the roots. The taproots drink while the abundant hair roots use an electromagnetic charge to foster a relationship with starch and the elements the plant wants. With an overabundance of macro-nutrients and water, the plants bloat, essentially becoming obese, which attracts pests, so we put on pesticides. The pesticides kill the microorganisms, so the roots stop functioning. As water collects, fungus can threaten the garden, such that we use fungicide, and that indiscriminately kills fungi that help with soil creation. Then, the soil begins to collapse, losing air and moisture, which in turn requires additional irrigation. Additional irrigation equates to more runoff, and that causes erosion issues. When erosion begins, weeds start to occupy the system to fill in the functional gaps and protect the soil. So, we use an herbicide. At this point, we have provided a full biocide cocktail, which has destroyed the soil and all but nullified potential profits. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Most of the 103 known elements are not dealt with in regards to soil, only silica, iron, aluminum, and calcium. - Soil’s pyramid starts with carbon on top, above the macro-nutrients NPK, which are over minor nutrients, with trace and micro-trace elements below them. - Industrial agriculture is a cause-and-effect system that, by creating a dependence on chemicals, destroys soil and seriously decreases profits.

7.1.9. 8.9 – Primary Nutrients for Plants [VIDEO]

7.1.9.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Name the three primary nutrients for plants - Explain how nitrogen works in the soil and where to source it naturally - Explain how phosphorus works in the soil and where to source it naturally - Recognize that potassium levels are generally sufficient, and where it comes from - List many natural soil additions that can help supply minerals and nutrients BRIEF OVERVIEW The three main primary nutrients for plants are the familiar NPK: Nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium. These can all be sourced naturally. Nitrogen comes from trees and plants that have bacterial colonies on their roots that fix nitrogen into the soil. With annuals we simply wait for the plants to die, and the roots release the nitrogen into the soil, but with perennials, we have the potential of adjusting this cycle. The basics of adjusting this cycle is that nodules on the roots provide nitrogen in exchange for starch produced from photosynthesis. Then, using techniques like pollarding and coppicing, which cause a self-pruning of the root system, the plants naturally provide nitrogen in the soil, as well as other useful functions like high quality mulch from chop-and-drop pruning and forage/food. Phosphate is said to be deficient worldwide, but it is also something that can be supplied easily and naturally. Bird manure is very rich in phosphate, so poultry and abundant wild birds can provide it. There are also certain trees — palms and casuarina–that fix phosphate into the soil, much like nitrogen-fixing plants do nitrogen. The difference here is that it’s a fungal relationship with the roots rather than a bacterial one. Nevertheless, the exchange is similar, and that means that the detritus from these trees is also rich in phosphate. Potassium is much easier. It is present in all green material, so just by making sure that green organic matter has a place in the garden system, potassium levels should be sufficient. Otherwise, sea grass and residue from fish, specially processed sea water, and rock dust add lots of minerals to the soil. Livestock can also be fed mineral supplements as part of their health routine, and it will come through in their manure. For that matter, composting systems and vermiculture also provide an abundance of minerals for quality soil. KEY TAKEAWAYS - The main primary nutrients for soil are nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium: NPK. - Nitrogen comes from trees and plants that have bacterial colonies on their roots, exchanging nitrogen for starches from photosynthesis. - Phosphate comes from either bird manure or plants that have a similar exchange as nitrogen-fixing trees, but this time with phosphate-fixing fungi. - Potassium is present in all green organic material. - Other sources of minerals include sea grasses, specially processed sea water, livestock manure, and compost/vermiculture systems.

7.1.10. 8.10 – The Distribution of Elements in the Soil [VIDEO]

7.1.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Identify how soil elements are collected and distributed - Locate various sources of concentrated elements for soil creation BRIEF OVERVIEW Water acts as a distributor of elements into the soil, carrying them along as they permeate landscapes. Swale systems pick up all sort of nutrient-rich elements and send them via water into the soil. Slope and infiltration then cause specific soil types in specific places. Then, specialized living elements can seek out and assemble components into changed, stable systems. Lots of things help to concentrate elements. Roots, fungi, rocks, mollusks, and algae all have roles to play. Areas of concentration eventually become deposits of coal, rare earth, magnesium, and so on. Plants like reeds transpire these element particles into the atmosphere, where trees harvest them on their leaves. When rains come, the minerals collected on leaves wash down and absorb into the root zone. Life cycles then perform similar distribution. When life dies, it feeds these elements back into the soil so that they continue cycling through the system. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Water acts as a s distributor of elements through the soil. - Slope and infiltration cause specific soil types and mineral concentrations in the specific areas. - Lots of things — roots, fungi, rocks, mollusks, algae — help to create concentrates of elements. - Elements transpired by plants catch on the leaves of trees and are washed down into the root zone when it rains. - When living things die, the elements within them feed the soil so that they can be absorbed elsewhere.

7.2. Modules 8.11 to 8.20

7.2.1. 8.11 – pH and Soil [VIDEO]

7.2.1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Diagram how the scale for pH balance works - Point out the extremes of the pH scale and what they indicate - Relate methods for moving the pH balance towards neutral - Generalize the likely pH balance of different landscapes BRIEF OVERVIEW pH stands for parts hydrogen or percentage hydrogen, and in soil, it is mostly determined by the parent rocks. Seven is neutral, with six through one being acidic and eight through thirteen being alkaline. The scale is a logarithm, moving at the power of ten, such that six is ten times more acidic than seven, and five 100 times more acidic, four 1000 times more acidic, etc. As pH moves away from neutral, nutrients become less and less available and other problems persist. At 4.5, heavy metals become soluble, at 3.5 aluminum becomes soluble, and this is where heavy industry and fossil fuels are taking us. The same is true for the alkaline side. The far reaches of the alkaline side are just as corrosive. There is very little life outside of pH four and ten. To begin balancing, sulfur can move alkaline soils towards neutral, while lime or dolomite can move acidic soils towards neutral. Gardens are best at somewhere around a balance of 6.5, or more broadly, between six and seven, which is slight acidic. Rain, too, is slight acidic, as are swamps and humid places. On the other hand, deserts, coasts, and new volcanism tends to be on the alkaline side of things. Regardless, the pH is never constant and will change via time of day and humidity levels. KEY TAKEAWAYS - The pH scale refers to parts hydrogen or percentage hydrogen. - The pH is largely determined by the parent rocks of soil. - pH 7 is neutral, with anything below that being acidic and above that being alkaline. - Beyond four and ten on the scale, the situation becomes pretty lifeless. - Lime and dolomite help to alkalinize acidic soil, and sulfur helps to acidify alkaline soil. - The pH is never constant, changing with things like the time of day and level of moisture.

7.2.2. 8.12 – pH Scale [ANMTN]

7.2.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Neutrality on the pH scale is seven, with acidic being lower numbers and alkalinity higher numbers. The extreme ranges are below 3.5 and above 10.5. Soils between six and seven or slightly acidic, with between five and six being moderately acidic, and this will usually occur in humid regions. In the range of four is strongly acidic, and three very strong. Between seven and eight is slightly alkaline, eight to nine moderate, and this will generally occur in arid regions. Nine is strongly alkaline and ten very strong.

7.2.3. 8.13 – Soil Composition [VIDEO]

7.2.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain the origins of humus and how we can create it in our gardens - List the many advantages resulting from using deep organic mulches - Realize the important steps of soil restoration, and the roles certain insects play - Identify the diverse materials that go into making a good compost BRIEF OVERVIEW The component of soil composition that we can change is humus. Gardens should be about forty percent humus, and this humus, rich in organic material, will help with blocking potential toxins from getting into the plants. We create more humus with organic soil additives: compost and deep mulches. Compost is applied atop the soil, inoculating it with life, and a thick layer —about 150 mm) — of mulch is put atop the compost. Deep mulches of loose, uncompact-ed material provide many advantages. Gardens with deep mulches can require as little as 1/10 the water other gardens need. The mulch also prevents erosion, moderates the soil temperature, and locks up toxins. Organic mulches add nutrients to the soil as they decompose, enabling us to direct particular nutrients where we want them. Mulch also encourages biological activity in the garden, as it feeds the soil life and increases its complexity. The community of soil life in a degraded area can take three to five years to restore. During this restoration, it’s imperative that we don’t battle with certain insects that are sometimes viewed unfavorably in gardens: Ants and termites convert more wood into soil than do worms. It’s the collective of soil life species that creates the crumb structure we want our soils to be, and there is no machine or technique that we — humans — can use to recreate it. The end result becomes food with improved taste and higher nutrient content. Though one of the first rules of composting is that if it once lived, it can live again, we must be careful in choosing the materials we compost. Diversity rather than concentrates should be key in choosing our materials, and carbon is the sponge that helps to lock up in toxins. Even when dealing with animal manures, it’s important to consider what they are being fed and where the manure is being stored, as these things can contaminate. Toxins are both bad for us and for the plants, inhibiting their growth and health. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We can change the humus in soil composition using compost and deep, loose mulch. - Compost is applied to the soil surface and then covered with 150 mm of compost. - Mulch decreases water use, prevents erosion, moderates temperature, locks up toxins, adds nutrients, and encourages biological activity by feeding the soil life. - To avoid toxic concentrations, compost should be done carefully, using diverse materials sourced from safe outlets.

7.2.4. 8.14 – 18-Day Compost [VIDEO]

7.2.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Provide the basic recipe for creating an 18-day compost - Give examples of carbon-to-nitrogen ratios for several common compost elements - Outline the process for creating an 18-day compost, including problem-shooting BRIEF OVERVIEW The 18-day compost is a quick, aerobic process, and it begins with creating a ratio of about 25-to-30-parts carbon to one-part nitrogen. The carbon acts as a sponge, locking up the explosive nitrogen element. Likewise, decomposition locks up toxins in long-chain molecules. Almost anything that has been alive can be composted. Some things — sawdust 500:1, shredded paper 150:1 — are very much carbon and break down slowly, while other things — fish 7:1, urine 1:1, and manures (varies by animal) — have much more nitrogen. In this compost heap, we are looking to have one-third high carbon, one-third green material (freshly pruned), and one-third manure. To help things kick off, some people also like to add an activator — comfrey, nettles, yarrow, urine, fish, a dead animal, old compost — to the center of the pile. This compost has size limits and requires some tools. It should be no smaller than one cubic meter but no larger than three cubic meters, and it should be no taller than 1.2 meters because that could cause an anaerobic effect, which is a much more precise composting method. The tools required will include a long-handled pitch fork, a garden rake, a tarp, and hose for water. The initial pile should sit for four days, covered by a tarp that is lifted a little over the pile to allow for airflow. After four days, the pile should be turned, scraping off the outer layers first, essentially turning the pile inside out. The moisture level should be checked daily by taking a handful and squeezing it very tightly, and the correct level is one or two drips for a squeeze. This turning process is then repeated every two days. The pile should be its hottest (50-70 C) around the sixth or eighth day, and the optimum temperature is between 55 and 65 C. By day eighteen, it should be just warm. It’ll be dark brown. It should be the same size if the carbon content is right (if there is too much nitrogen, it’ll be too hot and smelly). It’ll have an earthy smell, and it will have fine particles. If there are problems, if it isn’t heating up, check the size, the moisture, then the nitrogen. KEY TAKEAWAYS - 18-day compost is quick and aerobic. It requires 25 to 30 parts carbon to one part nitrogen. - The minimum size is one cubic meter, and the maximize size is three cubic meters. - The pile shouldn’t be higher than 1.2 meters. - The mixture should be 1/3 high carbon, 1/3 green material, and 1/3 manure. - The tools require are a long-handled pitchfork, a hard rake, a tarp, and a hose. - Activators, like comfrey, dead animals, or old compost, help to jumpstart the decomposition. - The pile should be left for four days, turned inside out, and then turned the same way every other day. - Check the moisture content daily by squeezing a handful of the compost: a couple of drops is ideal. - Around the sixth day, the pile should be at its hottest, which between 50 and 70 C.

7.2.5. 8.15 – 18-Day Fast Compost [ANMTN]

7.2.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The tools necessary include a pitchfork, a hard rake, and a water-proof cover. The materials to be composted are things that have lived before, assembled in a carbon to nitrogen ratio of ideally 25-30 parts carbon to one part nitrogen. Anything with a carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of 30-50 to one is high carbon and slow to break down. These items should be shredded to increase surface area. Anything less that 30:1 doesn’t need to be shredded and will break down quickly. Piles should be composed of one-third shredded high carbon material, one-third powdered manure, and one-third finely cut green material, with a total of one cubic meter at a minimum. It should be pitchforked together one material at a time while being watered. An activator, one to two liters in size, can be placed in the middle of the heap, and this can include chopped up comfrey, fish, an animal body, urine, and/or good compost. It should be covered and left for four days, at which time the pile will just be warming. Then, it should be turned and covered with the moisture level such that, when squeezed very firmly, it will just drip. It can then be turned every other day, with days six to eight being the hottest. At this time, it should be uncomfortable to hold a hand inside it. 55-60 degrees Celsius is the ideal temperature. When cooler on the outside, it means its too dry, or when hotter on the outside, it is too wet. From day eight, it will begin to cool, and at day 18, it should be warm, dark brown, and the same size, and it should have an earthy smell and fine particles. If the compost isn’t get hot, first check if it is big enough: one-cubic meter, 1.5 meters high. If it is big enough, the moisture level should be checked next. If this is okay, it might be that the carbon material isn’t cut up finely enough. If all is well with these things, add more nitrogen and allow for two more days. If it heats up too quickly, loses volume, smells bad, and has white threads and powder through it, then the nitrogen content is too high, so carbon material should be added, along with two more days.

7.2.6. 8.16 – Food Web of a Compost Pile [ANMTN]

7.2.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The compost pile goes through the three basic levels of decomposition. The first level begins with organic matter, processed by slugs, snails, earthworms, white worms, beetle mites, flies, and slaters, as well as fungi, bacteria, and actinomycetes. The next level of energy comes from flatworms, roundworms, protozoa, rotifera, feather-winged beetles, mold mites, and springtails. The final stage is completed by ground beetles, pseudo scorpions, centipedes, predatory mites, rove beetles, and ants.

7.2.7. 8.17 – Soil Pores and Crumb Structure [VIDEO]

7.2.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Break down the origin and important functions of crumb structure in soil - Distinguish activities that aid crumb production and others that hinder it - Define colloids and gels - Explain the vital role of soil water and how to adjust levels through design BRIEF OVERVIEW Crumb structure is formed by soil organisms, and it allows air and water to penetrate into the soil. The crumbs stick together due to the starches created by soil life, and the congregation of crumbs helps to hold important bacteria and organisms in place. The crumb structure also helps to prevent anaerobic, water-logged soils. Humans can’t create crumb structure, so when reconditioning soil, we must use more than just machinery. Appropriate machinery can help with restructuring damaged and compacted soils, but other things are required to get the job completed. Inoculants like compost tea add new life, and particular plants — chicory, daikon radish, etc. — can help to open up passageways. In the end, the crumbs are between 0.2 and two millimeters in size, and they should comprise no less than ten percent of the soil. Crumb structure is destroyed when we remove permanent plants, burn organic material (especially in dry season), cause compaction, use chemical fertilizers, and overdo it with machinery. Instead, we should strive towards perennial systems with lots of trees, which interact with soil life, and with low annual cultivation. Colloids and gels are also very important to soil. Colloids are dispersed and suspended microscopic elements, and they remain unaffected by gravity. They are often in the form of gels, which are liquids that behave like solids. In colloidal gel form, nutrients are stable because they neither leach nor evaporate. Gels, either created with colloids or produced by bacteria, attract nutrients and make them available to plant roots. Soil water also plays a vital role in the soils. Organic and inorganic material are held up in soil water, which can be as low two percent and as much as forty percent of the soil content. We can adjust soil water by design. It can be increased using systems like swales and soil de-compaction, or it can be decreased, in the case of waterlogged soils, by planting trees and providing drainage. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Crumb structure is produced by soil organisms and opens up passageways in the soil for air and water. - Restructuring soil can start with appropriate machinery but should include inoculants and helpful plants. - Crumb structures are destroyed when permanent plants are removed, organic material is burned away, soil is compacted, chemical fertilizers are applied, and/or machinery is used too much. - Perennial systems with low cultivation help to maintain good crumb structure. - Colloids and gels also play a vital role in making minerals and nutrients available to plant roots. - Soil water levels can be adjusted and controlled with design.

7.2.8. 8.18 – Gaseous Content and Processes in Soil [VIDEO]

7.2.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Analyze the air content of soil and the contents of that air - Identify the different processes that put air into the soil - Describe the most effective methods for maintaining airy soils BRIEF OVERVIEW When not waterlogged, soil is partly air from the atmosphere, eighty percent nitrogen and sixteen percent oxygen. The air is let in mostly via good crumb structure, but also through things like decomposed root passages and animal burrows. The relationship, though, is give and take. The groundwater tide moves with the moon, whose pull causes groundwater rises of up to twenty-five centimeters, which creates exhalation from the earth. Air in the soil is generally carbon dioxide, and trees — part of the processes — take it and provide oxygen in return. Gases are produced in anaerobic soils, and we see this often in the form of marsh gas, i.e. methane. We don’t want our entire system to have this type of soil. Rather, we want to create a gaseous patchwork, oxygen-rich in the aerobic parts, with ethylene in the anaerobic areas. When ethylene is released, it is then replaced by oxygen, an important process. The best practices for maintaining this sort of soil health are based on minimum soil disturbance. Any machinery used should merely scratch the surface, where organisms are plentiful and can reproduce. Mulching should be done on the surface, not incorporated. Forests are important, and they should have permanent green mulch growing. No-dig and mulch gardens make good beds. When restructuring, we can utilize natural regeneration sequences as they occur locally. In the meantime, any small nutrient deficiencies can be addressed with foliar sprays. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Soil is partly air from the atmosphere, allowed in through good crumb structure and animal burrows. - There is a mutual exchange of gases between the earth and air. - Groundwater tides cause the earth to exhale, mostly carbon dioxide. - Gases — ethylene — are produced in soils that are waterlogged and release as swamp gas or methane. - Air in the soil is maintained via minimal soil disturbance, surface mulch, and perennial plant systems.

7.2.9. 8.19 – The Soil Biota [VIDEO]

7.2.9.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Illustrate the amount of diverse life in soil - Relate the effect of pH levels and climate on soil life - Break down the basic nutrient cycles occurring in the soil BRIEF OVERVIEW Life in the soil can easily by forty tons per acre and up to 200 tons. Intensively maintain gardens can have four times as much. Humus in the forest average 1400 years old, and they yield nutrient slowly and are resistant to bacteria. Every square meter can contain 1000 species and up to two kilometers of fungal mycelium. On the contrary, mechanisms of grain and industrial production, reduce life drastically. Climate and pH levels change soil life proportions hugely. Soil disturbance are more favorable for bacteria, and fungi prefect large, stationary woody elements. Fungi must maintain a connection with roots, trading minerals for starches, as well as acting as messaging systems between trees. Soil life provides lots of nutrients and nutrient cycles to the soil. Organisms return nutrients in death. Large soil elements, like wood louse and earthworms, help with massive nutrient production through manure and aeration from soil turnover via moving around. With this in mind, analyzing soil solely on mineral content is insufficient for understanding soil health. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Life in the soil can easily be 40 tons per acre and possibly be up to 200 tons. - Climate and pH change soil life proportions. - Soil disturbance favors bacteria, whereas woody elements are better for fungi. - Organisms and soil life are also huge providers of nutrients and functions within the soil. - Hence, soil health is based on much more than current mineral content.

7.2.10. 8.20 – Difficult Soil [VIDEO]

7.2.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List different types of difficult soils - Provide an approach for improving heavily compacted soils, like caliche - Choose effective solutions for dealing with water-resistant soils, like no-wetting sands - Convert deep-draining sands into fertile, productive gardens BRIEF OVERVIEW Some soils — cowcrete, caliche, ferrocrete, etc. — can be almost like concrete. Often this occurs half a meter to a meter beneath a sandy topsoil. In this case, the hardened area must be broken through and turned into mulch pits. The organic matter in the mulch pits will start to break down the surrounding area with humic acid. Pioneering trees should also be planted in the mulch pits, and the roots of these will help with breaking up the hard soils. The general approach is to rip the soil, shatter the harden areas, mulch heavily, and plant trees, and with this approach, planting in these areas is not impossible but requires time to recondition the soil. There are also no-wetting sands and clays, soils that simply refuse to take water. The sands are often dark and have been invaded by hydrophobic fungi, and this situation must be physical addressed with the several options. Options include making ridges in the soil and filling the furrows with absorbent clay, covering the sand with a deep layer of mulch, adding a handful of bentonite clay every square meter, and/or plowing a one-off deep rip and rot ation that is immediately mulched and planted. With resistant clay, it’s possible to make low-ridges to stop water flow, as well as add a handful of gypsum for every square meter and filling any cracks with sand. Putting on up to four centimeters of sand and planting it with pioneer seed will also help to natural mix the soils. Lastly, deep drain sands, where water simply goes right through it, can be addressed by adding a plastic sheet about half a meter under the garden and cap it with a layer of clay and mulch. This way it is at least possible to begin gardening, with the water held right at the root layer, where it is needed. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Soils that are hardened to being almost concrete, should be broken through, heavily mulched and planted with trees, all of which will help to recondition the soil over time. - Non-wetting sands can physically be addressed by making ridges with clay in the furrows, mulching the surface, adding bentonite clay, and performing a one-time deep rip that is followed by plants and mulch. - Non-wetting clays can be aided by low ridges to stop water flow, adding gypsum/calcium to the soil, and covering the area with a layer of sand and pioneer seeds. - For deep draining sands, installing a plastic sheet about half a meter deep, backfilling the hole and capping the sand with a layer of clay and deep mulch, will allow immediate gardening.

7.3. Modules 8.21 to 8.30

7.3.1. 8.21 – Laying Plastic in Deep Sands [ANMTN]

7.3.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW In deep, sandy soils that drain quickly, plastic liners can be installed a foot below growing spaces to prevent nutrient leaching. The sandy soil can be added atop the liner and covered with about 50mm (two inches) of clay and six inches of mulch.

7.3.2. 8.22 – Plant Analysis for Mineral Deficiencies [VIDEO]

7.3.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Examine various methods for adjusting different soil conditions - Outline how to conduct a large-scale plant analysis before making adjustments BRIEF OVERVIEW Plant analysis is something we need to understand a little before adding minerals and such to treat our soils because this costs a lot of energy and money. Small, raised bed gardens with mixed crops and concentrated areas are easier to adjust, but for large pieces of land, a simple, standard analysis is to plant an average, constant area with one cover crop. In plotted strips or plots, treat the cover crop with different foliar sprays. The results of what is needed are then very obvious by the success of the plants. This trial can be as little as one percent of the land, but it can sometimes take a year or more to get results. Nevertheless, the patience pays off when investing time and money into amendments. General treatments for different conditions vary. Sandy soils with low amounts of organic matter can be improved with mulch and manure. Acidic sands benefits from an application of dolomite, whereas alkaline sands (and heavy clays) often have insoluble trace elements, making it more effective to use foliar sprays to insure plants are getting what they need. With some experience, gardeners will be able to easily identify certain deficiencies by observing foliage. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We need to understand how to assess mineral deficiencies because amendments cost a lot of time and money. - Small, raised bed gardens with concentrated mixed species can be adjusted and assessed more easily. - For large-scale assessment, use an average piece of land (about one-percent of the area) and plant one cover crop on it. - The one cover crop should be plotted and treated with different foliar sprays to assess what is needed. - Only after a complete assessment should a large piece of land be amended.

7.3.3. 8.23 – Biological Indicators of Soil and Site Conditions [VIDEO]

7.3.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Classify different plants for what they can tell us about the soil - Identify the symptoms that certain weeds and pests tell us about systems - Give examples of different animals that have a major impact on soil conditions BRIEF OVERVIEW Plants tells us about soil. Particular trees need deep soils and will tell us, by how they look above ground, how conditions are below the surface. Other trees tolerate shallow soils. Some trees, such as willows, will indicate water reservoirs underground. Deep-rooting trees in sandy soil can tell us about the existence clay deposits under the surface. Trees with thick stems indicate the presence of water, whereas thin stems tell us it’s dry. All of this information helps us choose sites for particular plants. Specific plants can also indicate different pH levels. Strawberries do very well in acidic soils, while brassicas thrive in alkaline soils. These two things won’t grow well in the same bed together. Well-mulched and balanced beds are great for most crops, but particular plants like strawberries and brassicas can help us access the pH balance. Also, as soils move away from neutral, different nutrients lock up, so we can also read the plants that grow as a result of this. For example, thistles are an indicator of deficiencies in iron and copper, but this could be a result of acidic soil rather than those elements not being present. Weeds and pests are not problems but rather symptoms of an unbalanced system. Burned soils will have ferns and blade grasses working to replenish the potash. Soils that are waterlogged will result in marsh grasses, or compacted soils will have plants with deep-tapping roots, breaking the soil up for the next sequence plants. Carefully monitoring these things guides us. Animals also impact site conditions. Rabbits, with their burrows, will likely provide good drainage. Ant colonies will do the same, as well as increase potassium levels. Bat and bird colonies indicate that their will be surplus of nutrients. A large decaying carcass will change the plant life in its immediate area. Termite mounds change the soil’s condition. These are all useful, biological indicators. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Plants can tell us about soil depth, water reserves, clay deposits, and moisture levels. - Which plants are present can help us assess soil pH levels. - Weeds and pests are not problems but symptoms of unbalanced systems. - Animals, too, are biological indicators of soil and site conditions.

7.3.4. 8.24 – Biological Indicators of Soil and Site Conditions [ANMTN]

7.3.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The fire scars on tree rings indicate the frequency of major fires, as well as the direction from which they arrive.

7.3.5. 8.25 – Seed Pelleting [VIDEO]

7.3.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize the usefulness of seed pelleting for providing stability and improving soil - Point out that different seeds require different treatments before germination - Provide a basic recipe for making seed pellets - Prepare soils to make for more successful seed pelleting BRIEF OVERVIEW Seed pelleting over a broad area can improve stability and soil conditions. Seed pellets preserve seeds in situ until they have the right conditions to germinate. Before making pellets, some seeds will need particular treatments. They might need to be heated, smoked, refrigerated, or scarred. Legumes, likely a component in seed pellets, work best when inoculated beforehand. Pellets are primarily made from clay, but other useful elements can go into them. Things like lime, rock dust, calcium, and phosphate might all help with soil conditions. Bitter tea, neem powder, gels, and green dye are good for thwarting insects and animals for eating the seeds. Whatever the mixture is, it is used to encase the seeds. Finally, the soil can be prepared for better success as well. In dry lands, the soil can be imprinted so that the pellets will roll into them, dust and organic matter will collect, and water will congregate when it rains. In humid landscapes, the land can be chisel-plowed or slightly ripped. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Seed pellets are good for adding stability and improving soil conditions in broad areas. - Seed pellets preserve seeds until the conditions are right for germination. - Some seeds will need to be treated before being encased in a pellet. - Pellets are mostly clay but can be improved with amendments for increased success. - Conditioning soils before using pellets can also help.

7.3.6. 8.26 – Soil Erosion [VIDEO]

7.3.6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Examine the many different ways that modern agriculture is increasing soil erosion - Reorganize agriculture systems to minimize soil erosion - Give examples of observable erosion problems that can be addressed by design BRIEF OVERVIEW Soil erosion may be the biggest problem we’ve got. Soil can’t be created in an industrial way, but its creation is essential to permaculture. We are losing soils to wind and water erosion. It blows away in dust storms, and it washes away in sheet flows, gullies, and tunnels. We can lose four to six tons per acre per year and replace it with good organic practices, but on some industrial plow sites, we are losing 200-400 tons a year. What we need are more wind breaks to slow down the wind. We need more trees in general to stabilize soils with their roots and soften rains with their crowns. We need more fast-spreading grasses to cover soil and permanent crops to keep it in place. We need good water diversions and catchments, such as gabions in dry lands. We want to slow water and have it take a path so that it rubs against living things. Erosion is a design priority. Salted soils need reforestation. Compacted soils increase water runoff, and disturbed soils increase sediment lose. Overgrazing with animals causes erosion. Roadways can be disastrous, long-term contributors to erosive events. We have to assess sites, the slope, soil stability, and forests. We need to regulate domesticated animal practices and cultivation that cause erosion because we know that organic matter equates to soil stability. These problems are observable and can be addressed by design. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Soil erosion may be the biggest problems we’ve got. - Soil creation, something that can’t be done industrially, is a essential in permaculture. - Wind and water are the two main (natural) erosive forces. Industrial agricultural practices are causing massive soil erosion every year. - Wind breaks, more tree crops, fast-spreading grasses, permanent crops, and water diversions can all help to prevent erosion. - Addressing erosion is a priority in design, and it is something that is observable and fixable.

7.3.7. 8.27 – Soil Rehabilitation [VIDEO]

7.3.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Generalize about what can be done to improve subpar soils - Point out that stopping soil erosion takes precedence over improving soil - Explain different means of improving soil and approaches for different expanses of land - Indicate measures necessary for maintaining rehabilitated soils BRIEF OVERVIEW We rarely start with excellent soil, so skilled gardeners create crumby soil with labor and organic matter. There are other tools for rehabilitating soils, such as shattered hard soils and planting trees in the holes or chisel plowing caliche. Soil type maps help us plan low tillage gardens and control water. We have to do soil tests, pH analysis, and leaf assessment and use cheap additives and foliar sprays to improve soils. We also must prioritize soil erosion because there is no point in increasing fertility if it’s just going to run away. This means we have to concentrate on water harvesting and tree planting. We are looking to spread water slowly, in slight slopes, and build raised beds over any possible waterlogged areas. We have to fix compacted soils and then change our practices. We need to seek out foliar sprays for amendments so that we avoid disturbing the soil. Building soils must become a priority. In the gardens, this can come in the form of earth shaping, composting, and mulching, but the large-scale is different as we don’t have the time or money. So, we have to partner with nature. We have to use livestock for the benefit of the system rather than a destructive element. When we create cooperative eco-systems that conveniently provide for us, we don’t have soil problems. For the conditioning of compacted soils, rip lines are a way of opening the soil for air and water penetration without turning it. Rip lines can also be seeded so that an area moves out of the need for de-compacting weeds. Then, the pioneer species can either be chopped and left on the ground or grazed quickly to create root compost and nutrient drop. Soil life will multiply. This process can be repeated for a year, getting down to a little deeper each time to create spongy, absorbent soil. After that, it can be maintained with occasional chisel plowing and responsible grazing, or a forest can be planted. With rehabilitated soil, we look to reduce compaction and cultivation. We know intense production of crops and livestock deplete soils, so we need to look at what works in favor of soils. Then, we can go into a permanent production system. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Soil rehabilitation is usually necessarily as we rarely start with excellent soil. - We have to use tools and techniques to create low tillage systems with water control, prioritizing soil erosion in our designs. - Once we have fixed soils, we must change the practices that have damaged it. - Building garden soils can be done via earth shaping, composting, and mulching. - Larger scale soil rehabilitation has to be achieved through cooperation with nature, creating productive and permanent ecosystems. - Compacted soil can be reconditioned with chisel plows, which open the soil up but don’t turn it. - Cultivation and compaction, intense production, deplete soils, so we have to move away from those systems and towards permanence.

7.3.8. 8.28 – Soil Rehabilitation by Mechanical Methods [ANMTN]

7.3.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The speed of soil recovery from compaction can be greatly increased by the appropriate use of machinery. Using a sharp-tined chisel plow increase the depth of tine penetration into the soil, moving from 75 millimeters to 150 millimeters to 250 millimeters to 400 millimeters. Over one or two growing seasons this will help with soil life, humus creation, water retention, pH, and soil temperatures.

7.3.9. 8.29 – Soil Conditioning [ANMTN]

7.3.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW To begin soil conditioning a landscape, we should put plow lines moving only slightly downhill, barely off contour, and running from the ridge to the valley. Be sure to note that water only flows at a right angle to contour in the natural landscape, so when we chisel plow lines to prevent water runoff and absorb overland flow, leading surplus water gently towards the ridgelines, we improve the situation.

7.3.10. 8.30 – Soil in House Foundations [VIDEO]

7.3.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Name the key contributors to problems with house stability - List areas of concern and how to address them when creating a house foundation - Relate the relationship between houses and the trees immediately around them BRIEF OVERVIEW Stability is key when looking at soil beneath houses because problems can occur when it slips or heaves. Variations of clay cause most problems, and solid houses of stone or brick are the most susceptible to damage because they lack flexibility. When building below grade, we have to be concerned about water flows, both beneath and above the surface. Using a diversion mound on the upslope of the house can help to prevent waterlogging beneath it. We should assess what’s two to ten meters below the surface, especially with regards to underground water. Local experts should be consulted with regards to collapsing clays. In unstable spots, pilings can be driven deep into the ground to create stability at the surface. Trees are another concern. Too many trees near a house will dry and shrink the clay beneath it. However, if there are not enough trees, the clay can become waterlogged and swell or get swampy. As a general rule, trees should be planted half their mature height away from the house. Generally, sand and stone soils are stable to build on and don’t cause the problems clay does. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Stability is crucial when considering the soils beneath a house. - Clay is the most problematic soil for foundations because it shrinks and swells. - Controlling the water level in clay soil beneath a home is very important. - In unstable situations, pilings that reach below the instability can created stability at the surface. - Trees should be planted half their mature height away from the house. - Sand and stone soils don’t cause the stability problems that clay soils do.

7.4. Modules 8.31 to 8.36

7.4.1. 8.31 – Drainage of Wet Soils [ANMTN]

7.4.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Creating raised garden beds in areas with flat land can help to drain soils that might otherwise get waterlogged. In steeper areas, it’s better to install deep, open drains between flat garden beds and footpaths, and this will prevent runoff and erosion. In large open fields, we can install ditches with somewhere between 1:600 and 1:1000 fall from the ridgelines to streams in order to drain the fields. Mark As Complete

7.4.2. 8.32 – Piles Sunk into Water Table or Bedrock [ANMTN]

7.4.3. 8.33 – Life in Earth [VIDEO]

7.4.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Discover the many different types of animal life in the earth - Examine the various life cycles in earth-bound plants and fungi - Describe the interactions between geology and life forms in the soil BRIEF OVERVIEW We must learn to consider how much life is actually in the earth. That life keeps the soil aerated and soft. There are large, burrowing animals like moles and rodents, and there are also burrowing crustaceans and insects, such as ants and termites (In the tropics, ants actually convert more organic matter in the soil than earthworms). There are also innumerable microorganisms. All of this life keeps the soil healthy. Then, there is life in the plants and fungi in the earth. Some insects, like termites, build nests and actually farm fungi underground. Fungi is then eaten and spread around via animals. Roots have seasonal deaths that create compost corridors, later giving way to fungi, and these deposits are in a dendritic distribution, perfect for the soil. It’s something we can do with design to speed up systems. Equally as important, tree root mats also stabilize soil. Geology and life forms are even interacting in the soil as well. Coal, limestone, amber, and many other geological components were created from or modified by life. Coral reefs are another example. The hydraulic weight of thousands of years of fallen forests have netted stable living soil systems together. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Life is unbelievably abundant in soil, more complexly than it is above soil. - Soil life includes small mammals and rodents, crustaceans and insects, as well as worms, microorganisms, fungi and more. - Plants, with their roots, also play a major role in soil life, both as living and decomposing elements. - Many geological features were either formed of or created by life.

7.4.4. 8.34 – The Respiration of Earth [VIDEO]

7.4.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Dramatize the process in which the earth can be described as breathing BRIEF OVERVIEW The soil actually breathes. The movement of the moon causes earth tides to rise and fall, and the earth actually inhales and exhales air during this cycle. Wind also changes the pressure at the surface, and this creates another air exchange. Animals not only burrow to create air pockets in the soil but also breathe themselves to make yet more air changes within the soil. Gases like methane are released into the atmosphere. We are facilitators of these systems, aware that all of this breathing creates healthy soil. KEY TAKEAWAYS - The soil actually breathes. - The moon, through affecting earth tides, causes the earth to breathe. - Wind changes the air pressure the soil’s surface and causes it to breathe. - Animals breathe themselves and burrow into the soil, creating more air exchange. - Many gases are released from the earth. - We must encourage our soil to breathe this way.

7.4.5. 8.35 – General Soil Erosion Processes in Landscapes [ANMTN]

7.4.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW There are many types of soil erosion processes. Breakaways are eroding cliffs from high on the slope. There are dust storm mounds and ridges. Eroded coves are erosion scars of materials extracted just before the start of the water flow. Deflation in lower slopes are caused by collapsed areas that were saturated and then had material blown away once dried, and that material generally creates crescent dunes just below the deflated areas. There is the delta deposition and final capturing system of upslope erosion from catchments. Sheet flow from water on dry land forms fish scale patterns on the surface that catch material in big rain events. Gully erosion occurs from concise material extraction from a concentrated flow of water. Clear, steep landscapes become unstable in areas of mixed geology, and they can slump and slip. Erosion continues until reforestation occurs.

7.4.6. 8.36 – Soil Creation and Loss [ANMTN]

7.4.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Soil creation is the result of life interacting with geology. This is associated mostly with trees, herbal plants, ground covers, and their root zones. Fire takes away organic matter, disturbed bare soil allows for erosion, and compaction soils increase runoff, all of which cause soil erosion and mineral loss.

8. Module 9: Earth Working and Earth Resources

8.1. Modules 9.1 to 9.10

8.1.1. 9.1 – Chapter 9 Course Notes [PDF]

8.1.1.1. Earthworks Overview In this chapter, we move the earth around, and that includes soils, subsoil, sand, clay, gravel, and rock. We learn to reshape—plan, survey, and plant—the earth’s surface to speed the recovery of landscapes. We will become familiar with earth-moving machinery, learning which pieces of equipment are best suited to particular tasks and how to direct them to do so. With this information, we can become earth surgeons, reconstructing the landscape to produce positive results quickly. Continued...

8.1.2. 9.2 – Introduction to Earthworking and Earth Resources [VIDEO]

8.1.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List examples of the types of materials we use in earthworks - Identify the different facets that go into reshaping the earth’s surface - Recognize that moving earth is how we make the greatest effect in the least amount of time BRIEF OVERVIEW This is where we get the chance to move material around, not just soil but also layers of subsoil, sand, clay, gravel, and rocks. We will learn to reshape the earth’s surface, and that’s knowing how to plan, survey, and plant it for recovery. We’ll get to know how to direct earthwork machinery because earthworks are how we make the greatest effect in the smallest amount of time. With a small amount of energy, we can become earth surgeons performing reconstructive earth surgery. Then, we will have a powerful way to see results quickly. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We move many materials—soil, subsoil, sand, clay, gravel, rocks—to reshape the earth’s surface. - We will learn to plan, survey, and plant a piece of land for recovery and how to direct earthwork machinery to help us. - Earthworks are how we make the greatest effect in the smallest amount of time.

8.1.3. 9.3 – Earthworking and Earth Resources [VIDEO]

8.1.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Summarize the history of earthworks, especially when it changed drastically - Give examples of ways earthworks can be used to improve the landscape - Point out that permaculture focuses on small, regenerative earthworks BRIEF OVERVIEW Soils are the structural design element for earthworks, and we have been creating and working with soils for at least 17,000 years. Since the 1950s, technology has advanced so far that we haven’t even realized how to use it to our full advantage yet. With earthworks, we have the ability to rehabilitate and ruin landscapes. Small, well-planned earthworks are inexpensive design solutions that can mitigate local drought, winds, noise, and erosion. They can be used to create tank stands to provide head pressure, and they can be used to build fire and storm shelters. They are necessary and can be done ethically so that they reduce our energy needs, diversify our production, repair our landscapes, lessen our material requirements, and enable more efficient land use. With good design, the energy used to create earthworks will be absorbed over the lifetime of the system created. Machines can also damage landscapes very quickly, and a single exploitive use of earthworks can be devastating. However, we can use earthworks to stabilize damaged landscapes. Earthworks can rehabilitate the land, provide multifunctional roads, direct runoff with drain and fill areas, provide earth banks for shelter, create terrace gardens on slopes, level house sites, control erosion, and build dams, ponds, and wells. The mechanization of earthworks has moved us from numbers (of people) and hand tools to very precisely measured possibilities. Permaculture focuses on small, rehabilitative earth moving practices to speed our systems into abundance and stability. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Soils are the structural design element of earthworks, and we have been using them for centuries. - Since the 1950s, technology has advanced so much that we haven’t even realized the benefits we can create. - Small earthworks can mitigate local drought, sea winds, noise, and erosion. - Earthworks can be ethical, reducing energy needs, diversifying production, repairing landscapes, reducing material requirements, and enabling more efficient land use. - Exploitive earthworks can devastate a landscape, but earthworks can be used to stabilize damaged landscapes. - Permaculture focuses on small, reparative earth moving that pushes systems into abundance and stability.

8.1.4. 9.4 – Planning Earthworks [VIDEO]

8.1.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize the preliminary work that goes into planning before doing earthworks - Outline the list of things that need to be determined before a machine arrives on site - Paraphrase how to handle topsoil during earthworks BRIEF OVERVIEW Earthworks need to be very carefully planned before machines and labor arrives. We can use contour maps to do the initial design, but we must then reference them at the site, surveying and marking out everything. We’ll need to take soil tests to be sure that our soil has the materials we need to support the design. Then, the site should be marked so that we know how the earth will be moved. All topsoil should be removed and stored while we work with the subsoil. Once the earthworks are complete, the topsoil can be re-applied. It should immediately be planted with local cover crop seed, much thicker than recommended, and the area can be scatter mulched. After the cover crop seed is introduced, we can move into the mass planting of appropriate trees. Excavated soil expands as it loosens, so the volume will reduce as it settles, even when it has been compacted by machines. This has to be kept in mind. House foundations should be cut very accurately, and other areas should be planted immediately to prevent erosion. Compacted earthworks should be ripped before reapplying topsoil and planted immediately. We must plan as much of this as possible before the machine arrives. Drainage is a crucial aspect of designing a house site. Trench and bucket machines can be used for excavating foundations, and they can also be used to create drainage systems, something necessary for keeping the site dry and stable. Once the drainage is created, extra soil can be used to build mounds for creating windbreaks and shelters. Then, it’s vital to always plant the areas we’ve disturbed. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We must carefully plan and survey earthworks before machines and labor arrives. - Topsoil should be removed, stored, then reapplied and immediately planted after the earthworks. - House sites must be cut very accurately and designed to drain very well to remain stable. - It is very important to always plant any area that has been disturbed so that it stabilizes quickly.

8.1.5. 9.5 – Planting After Earthworks [VIDEO]

8.1.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Summarize how to properly address disturbed soils - List types of plants that can be used to help vegetate an area efficiently - Identify what can and cannot be used to stabilize dam walls - Relate the steps for creating stable drainage systems that move towards productive trees - Explain how net and pan systems work BRIEF OVERVIEW When we disturb soil, we must be ready with seeds to replant the area to both prevent erosion and out run the weed seeds that have been exposed. Cover crop seeds should be applied at four times the density so that they can take advantage of the moisture in upturned earth and really establish themselves. Groundcovers, pioneer plants, clumpers and trees can then be planted. The whole area should be covered with a thin layer of mulch. This is a system that we want to self-seed and replicate, so we accept that there will be some failures by planting with diversity. On dam walls, which we must stabilize, we can’t have trees with taproots because they can damage the walls. Instead, we can use plants like bamboo, palms, and willows that have shallow hairnet roots, which are perfect for stabilizing loose soil. We should put them on the outer wall, and we can also put them on the freeboard. The area should also be seeded with a cover crop. Usually, the top of the dam wall is kept clear for passage. On steep back cuts, net and pan planting patterns connected with diversion drains can help establishing soil stability. The pans should be planted and filled with mulch. The system of diversion drains will help to slow water and make it soak into planted areas. Once the pioneer plants are up and the system stabilized, other long terms trees — not necessarily for production but stability — can be added. In larger diversion drains, gabions of straw bales, sticks and/or temporary rocks can be installed to slow water flows and create level silt fields. These should be installed in case the rain comes, and they can later be planted with trees that have fibrous roots to slow water flows. When the upslope is stabilized, we can feel safe to plant hardy, productive trees on the lower, flatter slopes. KEY TAKEAWAYS - When soils are disturbed, we must be ready to replant densely with local groundcovers immediately to prevent erosion and weeds. - Dam walls can’t be planted with trees that have taproots but rather trees with shallow, hairnet roots. - On steep back cuts, net and pan planting can help to establish pioneer species to provide early stability. - In new diversion drains, gabions can slow water flows and create level silt fields for planting stabilizing plants.

8.1.6. 9.6 – Slope Measures [VIDEO]

8.1.6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Paraphrase the different methods for measuring slope, and when they are used - Recognize the limits of different materials to stabilize slopes - Point out the need to plan our earthworks with catastrophic events in mind BRIEF OVERVIEW There are different ways of measuring slopes. Degrees from horizontal is the way commonly used for steep slopes, with 90 degrees being vertical and 45 degrees being halfway between vertical and horizontal. Percentages can be used, confusingly with 100% being equivalent to 90 degrees and 50% the same as 45 degrees. Lastly, proportions of rise to run are usually utilized for lower, shallower slopes, and one (measurement up) to one (measurement sideways) equates to 45 degrees. Irrigation systems are created with very shallow slopes, with ratio like 1 to 500 in clays and 1 to 2000 in sands. Material changes the slopes we use. Sand needs shallower slopes than clay to prevent erosion, and its generally better to cut slopes with a slight concave. Natural profiles also change slopes, so we should study the local location to see at what degree soils naturally stabilize. Smaller material usually stabilizes at a shallower slope than larger material. Gravel stabilized at 1 to 1.5, whereas well-drained clay works at 1 to 2 and wet clay at 1 to 4. We have to design to prevent catastrophic events. Small notches can be put across the top of cut slopes so that water is directed to more stable areas. When benches are cut into hills, nature tries to reestablish the slopes, so we have to stabilize our earthworks. In dry areas prone to wildfires, clay soils can heat up and become impervious to water, which can create very dangerous events. We have to plan and prevent these potential disasters. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Slope can be measure in different ways: degrees, percentages, and proportions. - Materials and natural profiles change the slope that we use in our earthworks. - Our designs have to be planned to prevent and manage catastrophic events.

8.1.7. 9.7 – Preparing a House Site [ANMTN]

8.1.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW When preparing a house site, the soil must be cut and shaped for the future functioning of the house. The grade should be cut to level, and the topsoil stored for later use. Subsoil is pushed to the lower side of the slope to level out the site, and topsoil can be added beyond that for plantings. The slab can help to level accurately, and the shade side can be used for drainage that doubles as a path. The back slope can be used to create a cellar, and the space between it and the house can be used to create a shade house as cooling attachment to the house.

8.1.8. 9.8 – Slopes Cut to Dry Out Roads [ANMTN]

8.1.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Slopes cut on the upside of roads should be laid back to a shallower angle so that they can dry out more easily, and the trees we plant should be low-growing so that they don’t shade the slopes and create wet, muddy conditions.

8.1.9. 9.9 – Levels and Leveling [VIDEO]

8.1.9.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Give examples of different earthworks that require an understanding of level - Identify different tools that can be used to accurately find level/contour BRIEF OVERVIEW Level can be understood and taken accurately, and this is needed for many things. Leveling is required for spillways and swales. Drains, which need of fall rate, require accurate leveling measurements. House sites need to be leveled and drained. On dam sites, we need leveling for establishing water lines and overflow systems. Roads need to be leveled and created with a two percent gradient to remain dry. The measurements are not complicated but require little bits of mathematics. The measurements can be made with simple tools. Water, or bunyip, levels can be created with two sticks and a length of clear hose. A-frame levels are two sticks with a crossbar and a weight line, and they work on gravity. Transit, or dumpy, levels are scopes mounted on a tripod and used to look at a measurement staff throughout the landscape. Laser levels emit a laser that recognizes a point on a staff that signifies level. Simple eye levels, which can be carried in a pocket, can be used to assess landscapes for consultancies. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Level needs to be understood and accurately taken because it is necessary for many kinds of earthworks. - Level can be measured with many simple tools: water levels, A-frame levels, transit levels, laser levels, and (assessed by) pocket-sized leveled

8.1.10. 9.10 – The A-Frame Level [ANMTN]

8.1.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A-levels are simple survey tool that has been used for finding contour. The legs should be equal length and set at equal angles, and the joints need to be rigid. A weighted line is hung from the center, reaching beyond the crossbeam. On level surface, lines can be marked to either show level or desired gradients.

8.2. Modules 9.11 to 9.20

8.2.1. 9.11 – Types of Earthworks [VIDEO]

8.2.1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize that earthworks in permaculture are far more than dams and swales - Point out the right machines required for various earthwork jobs - Explain the uses for, and how to construct, earth benches - Relate how and where terraced gardens should be installed BRIEF OVERVIEW There many types of earthworks in permaculture, not just dams and swales. Earth banks can be built, and they require a bit of dishing (concaveness) to prevent slumping caused by water or soil settling. Roads can be installed on stable banks with v-drains, and they may need retaining walls at the bottom of back cuts or v-drains at the top of them. From the center point of roads, there is a 2% gradient so that it drains away to each side. Benches are usually flat with a slight slope to drain. They are created by starting on a ridge, where the slope is shallower (20 degrees or less), and moving along contour on slopes as much as 40%. Wider benches are created for house sites and roads. They shouldn’t be set up across water courses without proper infrastructure to direct the water flows, or they will erode. Back cuts must be stabilized by shaving them at a good angle and using net-and-pan planting patterns. Generally, benches are 1.5 to three meters wide, and the fill side can always be planted with higher quality trees. In this way, they perform a similar function to the swales of shallower slopes. Benches are tree shelves. Small farms on steep slopes can be cultivated stably, but it requires careful design. The terraced gardens need careful overflow points on alternating ends of slightly staggered terraces. Upper slopes should be planted to mulch trees, which can be fed down to orchard beneath them. From the orchards, more mulch material can be fed down to poultry yards, where chickens can shred and manure the mulch. The enriched mulched can then be used on gardens in lower terraces of the system. This design maximizes stability and minimizes work. Machines perform different earthwork functions, so it is important to get the right machine for the job. Bulldozers are great for moving soil, but pushing more than five times their length gets very expensive. For longer soil moving, a bucket excavator with multiple trucks might be more efficient. Cross slope and downhill pushes, as well as side-casting, are much more cost efficient. Blade and bucket machines are need for different tasks. Operators appreciate sites being marked and can help provide advice for how events will work. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Permaculture earthworks include more than just swales and dams, such as earth banks and roadways. - Large benches are used for house sites and roadways, with good drainage to move water away. - Benches generally have a slight slope for drainage, are 1.5 to three meters wide, and act — similarly to swales — as tree shelves on steeper slopes. - Small farms on steep slopes can be designed with very specific terrace systems to provide stability and efficiency. - It’s important to hire the right kind of earth-moving equipment for the job.

8.2.2. 9.12 – Essentials of Water and Soil Slump Control [ANMTN]

8.2.3. 9.13 – Benches Cut into Hillsides on Contour [ANMTN]

8.2.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A bench track on contour that tilts slightly so that it doesn’t hold water will make a good access road on steep slopes. They are useful for farm vehicles and as walking paths. Valuable trees can be planted on the downside, and fire-resistant mulch and forage material planted above the cut path. Tracks can be 50 to 100 meters apart, moving closer together and farther apart with contour line, with long-term trees planted between the benches. The benches can be kept clean by mowing or grazing animals.

8.2.4. 9.14 – Kick-Down Systems and Steep Terraces [ANMTN]

8.2.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Kick-down systems and terraces can be used to help with nutrient flows down a steep slope. Water storage should be placed as high as possible for gravity irrigation with densely planted mulch trees just below them. They can be pruned regularly as used in the orchard below them, and the orchard can have fruits good for chicken food, with chicken houses being next down the slope. Chicken can then kick down mulch that they have manure-d so that it congregates at the bottom of their yard. The high quality mulch can be taken further downhill to a terrace garden, where it is added to footpaths so it breaks down even further then added to the garden just uphill. Terrace garden can be staggered to minimize runoff erosion.

8.2.5. 9.15 – Road Cut on Mild Slope [ANMTN]

8.2.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW On a mild slope, a good-draining, well-designed road cut is a great asset. It should be fence to exclude animals, with ground cover and trees planted to add stability. At the top of the concave back put, a drain should be installed to control surface runoff. For wet soils, pipers can be installed to create pocked of good soil with mat-rooted plants. A spoon-drain gutter should be installed next to the road on the high side, with pipes extended under the road to exit any surplus water. The road surface can be sealed and leveled with compacted gravel. On the lower side of the road is a fill slope, also planted with mat-rooted plants, and there is the possibility of quality trees below this. This kind of design reduces maintenance and increases function.

8.2.6. 9.16 – Terrace System [ANMTN]

8.2.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A series of terraces can be a very stable garden system. Dry crop vegetables can be grown, trellises can cover the bunds, mulch crops should be included, and perennial legume trees provide stability. Bunds can be walled, or if they are planted, they should be no steeper than 37 degrees and no more than two meters tall. To maintain stability, wet terraces in the desert shouldn’t account for more than 30% of surface area (no more than 5% in drylands), and tree legumes should be included for added stability and mulch. Top soil from the bottom terrace is stowed away and moved to the top terrace at the end of construction, while, in between, each terrace has supplied the soil for the terrace below it.

8.2.7. 9.17 – Earth Constructs [VIDEO]

8.2.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Realize that earthworks are more than digging, they can be used for constructs - Explain earth constructs and advantages they bring when building homes - List other useful constructs that can be made from earth BRIEF OVERVIEW We often think of earthworks only in terms of digging and shaping holes and drains, but earth constructs should not be discounted. Mounds can form very functional additions to landscapes. They are the quickest way to create shelter for a house or field. Arching crescent earth banks can block cold winds from the poles and create sun traps, and these are cheap, permanent structures. Swales can be put inside and outside the crescent so that trees can be planted for added productive and shelter. Or, if a house is built in a cut, mounds can be installed at the top of the cut to direct water away from the house and provide water soakage for trees planted in them, providing an excellent windbreak. Homes, too, can be quickly built of earth with earth-moving equipment, and these are inexpensive, long-lasting shelters that are quiet, strong, and fireproof. There is no need to pound dirt into tires or bury trash. Earth movers can build up walls and compact them with any type of soil. Even sand has possibilities. Raised gardens in wetlands can be created by making part of the wetland deeper while mounding next to the channel. The water then has more opportunity to support life, and the mound will be extremely fertile and suitable for cultivation. Earthworks can be used to direct wind and water, providing energy harvesting possibilities. They can also make safe shelters and protection from floods and fires. Levees, the opposite of dams, create safe spaces. Earth ramps can be used to make work easier when loading and unloading things. Ha ha fences, an elongated and deep pit, can be used when materials are scarce, and they can prevent large animals from destroying gardens. Roads can be designed to be very beneficial structures. Earth ramps can be used to create wildlife underpasses so that animals can get safely from one side to the other. Road runoff can be directed to wetlands and other water features. Pipes can be installed underneath roads to harvest the heat that they collect and use it as energy. As designers, we have to give these options, and in turn, the road can actually subsidize itself. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Earthworks is not only holes and drains but has many different constructs. - Mounds can create effective windbreaks and suntraps for houses and fields. - Quality homes can be built quickly and cheaply with earth moving equipment. - Earth mounds can create fertile growing spaces in wetlands, protect us from fires and floods, and direct wind and water. - Roads can be built to provide many benefits, beyond driving, for the communities that use them.

8.2.8. 9.18 – Raised Bank Around House [ANMTN]

8.2.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A raised earth berm bank around a house modifies the climate. It can block cold winter winds and hot summer winds, as well as allow cooling summer breezes. An excavated pond inside the berm can reflect light into the house and moderate the climate.

8.2.9. 9.19 – Banks for Wind Break Assistance [ANMTN]

8.2.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Earth banks can help to infiltrate water into the landscapes and can be planted to create windbreaks. This will create shelter belts, flood protection, noise reduction, and drainage adjustment.

8.2.10. 9.20 – Earth-Compacted Wall Construction [ANMTN]

8.2.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Houses or barns of compacted earth can be constructed in just a few days with modern earth moving equipment. They are very strong, long-lasting, waterproof, and cheap. They are built of natural materials from the earth.

8.3. Modules 9.21 to 9.29

8.3.1. 9.21 – Earthbanks and Islands in Marshes [ANMTN]

8.3.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW When installing ponds in wet landscapes, we end up with surplus material with which we can create deeper, more useful water and raised, more useful land. We can create tiny islands for nest sites, small tree mounds, bamboo islands, large mix-planted islands, and large windbreak islands. Peninsulas can be designed as chinampas with trellis crops over the water, and peninsula house sites are nearly surrounded with water views. A windmill can pump water uphill to tank for gravity irrigation. Mark As Complete

8.3.2. 9.22 – Earth Ramps and Stands [ANMTN]

8.3.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Earth ramps and stands are inexpensive to build and easy to maintain. Ramps can be used for loading and unloading, and ramps can be used for gaining head pressure with water tanks. They are cheap, simple ways to reduce workload.

8.3.3. 9.23 – "Ha-Ha" Fences [ANMTN]

8.3.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A ha-ha fence is often used to keep out big animals, especially where post and wire fencing isn’t available. It has often been used for unobstructed animals viewing in zoos and works very well as permanent fencing.

8.3.4. 9.24 – Swale Usage [ANMTN]

8.3.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The base of swales can be used as pathways on hillsides and can be mowed or grazed by controlled small animals. The full potential of swales in succession vary with wet terrace swales, wind break swales, production swales of hardy trees, ridge access swales, ridge access roads, and shelter from prevailing winds for more sensitive trees. Swales can be trellis to prevent evaporation and provide more productive crop, and banana, coconut, and papaya mulch pits can be included. Small ponds can also be added to increase production and diversity.

8.3.5. 9.25 – Design for Road Enhancement [ANMTN]

8.3.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Roads can be designed to enhance the surrounding environment. Water runoff from hard surfaces can be used to recharge the landscape. The uphill side can be a swale directed to an overflow culvert that goes under the road to a pond or dam that function as a wildlife reserve. Wildlife underpass can be installed in dry places. The lower side of the road can also have swales for growing forests and coppice product. Public parking can add hard surface runoff to the system. Heat piping can be installed under the surface to provide energy.

8.3.6. 9.26 – Moving of the Earth [VIDEO]

8.3.6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Give examples of the different reasons we move earth - Identify the different blade machines, and relate how they are best used - Point out the different bucket machines and compactors, and how they are best used BRIEF OVERVIEW Historically, we have always moved earth, and we have done it for different reasons. We have gained access to water, pigments, rocks, and ores. We have built spaces for animals, plant roots, fungi, and gardens. We have leveled the ground for houses and buried both our humanure and our dead. We have done this with everything from rudimentary digging sticks to modern machinery. In permaculture, the benefits of earthworks can help us revolutionize eroded landscapes, moving them into canopy forests. Blade machines have many uses and forms. They are ideal for benching, terracing, and leveling, and these features can be completed with machines like bulldozers, graders, and wheel tractors with back blades. Blades are good for making rows and swales, and some can also be used to create v-ditches, crowns on roads, steering banks, and even small dams. Scrapers, really large blade machines, are the fastest at moving meters of earth per hour. Other important machines that help with earthworks include bucket machines and compactors. Some bucket machines are drotts, wheel tractors with front bucket attachments, and excavators. Excavators’ swiveling buckets can accurate shape mounds, and the machine can be fitted with a hydraulic hammer to break up rocks or a one-tooth ripper to loosen soils. For compacting the earths, we can use track rolling or sheepsfoot rollers, which vibrate to help the process. When compacting, it’s crucial to only compact 15 to 30 cm at a time. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We have moved earth for access to water, pigments, rocks, and ores; for raising animals, fungi, and gardens; for building homes; and for burying our humanure and dead. - The benefits of earthworks in permaculture can help us revolutionize eroded landscapes. - Blade machines—bulldozers, graders, and wheel tractors—are ideal for benching, terracing, and leveling. - Bucket machines include drotts, wheel tractors, and excavators. - We can compact using track rolling or specialized machines, like the sheepsfoot roller.

8.3.7. 9.27 – Large Machines [ANMTN]

8.3.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The most commonly used larges blade machines for permaculture earthworks are the road grader, bulldozer, and elevating scraper. Road graders can rip the ground with tilt and angle. It’s fast in flatter ground with few rocks, but it cannot move bulk material forward efficiently but can scrape earth very well. The bulldozer can work in steep, rough, rocky control. It can deep rip, and its blade can push things in all directions. It great for cutting, scraping, and carving but can only move bulk material about five times its length. The elevating scraper is very large that cuts, scraps, and lifts bulk material into its carrying tray. It can then lay the material as a level layer on the ground.

8.3.8. 9.28 – Bucket Machines [ANMTN]

8.3.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The large bucket machines most commonly used for permaculture earthworks are the drott, excavator, backhoe/loader, and front end loader. The drott looks like a bulldozer but, instead of blade, has a bucket that can lift and load. The excavator has a large arm and multiple hitch buckets for different landscapes, but they cannot move material more than twice their length. The backhoe has rubber tires like a tractor has bucket on the front and a restricted arm on the back. The front end loader runs on large tires and has a bulk loading bucket.

8.3.9. 9.29 – Earth Resources [VIDEO]

8.3.9.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize that excavated earth comes in many, many forms - Explain how to best utilize the most commonly excavated types of earth BRIEF OVERVIEW There are variations of materials exposed during earthworks, and they can be very specifically suited for different uses. When materials are mixed, we have to do our best to use them, but when materials are excavated in layers, we should keep them separated. Topsoil is dark earth, filled with roots and soil life and is usually no more than six to eighteen centimeters. Peets can be one to nine meters deep and flattened out to 60 centimeters and mixed with sand and soil. Clay is normally half a meter to six meters deep and can be used for many things, such as building dams. Sands can be grinding powders, sources of silica, and components of potting mix. They can be sieved to have different grades for all sorts of uses. Gravels are ideal for building roads, tracks, drains, and filters, and they can be utilized in concrete mixes and as heat stores. Shingle is great for roads, natural swimming pools, and mulching. Slate is a great building material, and boulders are both good for building and thermal mass heat storage. Earthworks is a special chance to understand geology and resources. We can reference our experience for other sites, and we can learn where to building things. Often jobs can pay for themselves with stockpiled materials that are excavated. The mud after earthworks can help us identify local animals by their tracks, and sometimes fossils and artifacts can teach us the history of a site. KEY TAKEWAYS - Many different materials are exposed during earthworks: topsoil, peet, clay, sand, gravels, shingle, slate, and boulders. - Earthworks is a special opportunity to understand geology and resources in general, as well as learn particular information about a site. - Always stay on site and pay attention during earthworks.

9. Module 1: Introduction to Permaculture

9.1. Modules 1.1 to 1.9

9.1.1. 1.1 – Chapter 1 Course Notes [PDF]

9.1.1.1. Welcome to the permaculture Design Certificate Course This course will equip you with the knowledge to become a permaculture designer, able to implement a specific design science to create abundance in everything from a backyard to a small farm to a broad-acre landscape. You will learn how to use modern tools and technology, as well as traditional methodologies, to construct a truly sustainable world today. Continued...

9.1.2. 1.2 – Introduction to the Course [VIDEO]

9.1.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Summarize the basic goals of Chapter 1 BRIEF OVERVIEW Welcome! This chapter serves as the introduction to the Permaculture Design Certificate Course. This introductory section will take you through the philosophy of permaculture and the need for permaculture design, the ethics of permaculture, and how it all integrates with landscapes and society. KEY TAKEAWAYS - By the end of this chapter, you will understand the philosophy behind permaculture - The core of permaculture is its ethics - Permaculture integrates with all landscapes and societies - You may find benefit in downloading and reading through the above Course Notes PDF, which will give a sweeping overview of all of Chapter 1

9.1.3. 1.3 – The Philosophy Behind Permaculture [VIDEO]

9.1.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Identify the prime directives of permaculture and the PDC course - Recognize the different environmental dilemmas the world is facing BRIEF OVERVIEW In “Permaculture: The Design Philosophy,” I begin to unpack the philosophy behind permaculture. This philosophy has values and ethics, and these ethics help define what we want and--just as importantly--what we do not want. The world is faced with multiple environmental dilemmas, which are often exacerbated through human interaction. Among other things, our consumption lifestyle has led us down a path of possible extinction, but we can undo what we have done much faster than people realize. The most pressing of these dilemmas include soil erosion, deforestation, and pollution. Permaculture seeks to address these problems by partnering ecosystem interactions through intelligent ecological design. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Permaculture is a “Design Science” - The prime directive of permaculture is to take responsibility for our existence and that of our children - The Permaculture Design Certificate (PDC) course is about learning how applying permaculture can have innumerable positive effects - Design intention with information - The earth self-regulates to disturbance - Life is about cooperation, not competition

9.1.4. 1.4 – Ethics [VIDEO]

9.1.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain the three ethics upon which permaculture is based - Describe how the three ethics are applied when practicing permaculture BRIEF OVERVIEW Ecological principles rest on the understanding of life where cycles, flows, systems and functions work ceaselessly through sound natural laws. Adherence to a set of foundational ethics helps gauge behavior and builds cooperation and trust within communities. The following set of ethics calls for nature-centered practices that allow for regeneration of land and those who live on it. The three permaculture ethics are: - Earth Care: This includes all living and nonliving things, land, water, animals, air, and the like - People Care: To promote self-reliance and community responsibility - Return of Surplus: This happens as a result of adherence to the above ethics whereby the surplus supports earth care and people care KEY TAKEAWAYS - Ethics are at the very core of permaculture - Traditional communities are anchored by ethics - The three permaculture ethics are care of the earth, care of people and return of surplus - The three ethics collaborate together and are interwoven with one another - Permaculture is a design science governed by these ethics - Biologically, if we are not stressed we naturally moderate population - As cooperating communities, we can be self-reliant - Self-regulating life systems evolve stability - Allow our systems to demonstrate their evolutions - After ethics, we find it much easier to develop cooperative elements with each other and nature itself, building permanent community - Once people are well cared for, this care naturally extends to all species, not just people - This course is about the mechanics of mature ethical behavior

9.1.5. 1.5 – Evolution from Contemporary Agriculture to a Permaculture [ANMTN]

9.1.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW When we convert farms from the contemporary industrial agricultural model to conservationist permaculture systems, 70% of the land becomes a permanent ecosystem. This systems — as nature does — primarily culminates in trees. The farm, then, must adopt a different accounting mechanisms, moving beyond a simple economic report of what is spent and earned. This system will also monitor more: the amount of energy used in relation to what it produces, the effects of the system on the environment, and the high quality social outputs, like meaningful employment and quality food. As time passes, the new system increases in value.

9.1.6. 1.6 – The Evolution from Contemporary Agriculture to Permaculture [PDF]

9.1.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW When we convert farms from the contemporary industrial agricultural model to conservationist permaculture systems, 70% of the land becomes a permanent ecosystem. This systems — as nature does— primarily culminates in trees. The farm, then, must adopt a different accounting mechanisms, moving beyond a simple economic report of what is spent and earned. This system will also monitor more: the amount of energy used in relation to what it produces, the effects of the system on the environment, and the high quality social outputs, like meaningful employment and quality food. As time passes, the new system increases in value.

9.1.7. 1.7 – Permaculture in Landscape & Society [VIDEO]

9.1.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize how the permaculture ethics can be applied to all we do - Illustrate how landscapes and society are rearranged by permaculture design, such as urban agricultural systems, soil creation, and food miles - Define a sustainable system - Give specific examples of successful permaculture projects on a macro-level BRIEF OVERVIEW Permaculture design thinking contributes to changes within social landscapes as you define where your local, regional and biosphere-specific resources come from. Although we look to the past and learn from traditions that worked closely with nature, our focus is very much on the present; it is about integrating the wisdom of the past with present and future needs in mind. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Permaculture with its ethics can be applied to whatever we do - Permaculture design concentrates primarily on areas that are already settled - Currently, almost all agricultural lands need a complete redesign - Most of our needs can come from urban and permanent urban agricultural systems close to where we live, supplying the needs locally by the people with local engagement - Soil cultivation in gardens is extremely fast: We can produce two inches in a garden every year. - We need to cultivate a deep appreciation of all living systems - A sustainable system by definition produces more than it consumes - In permaculture, we look at increasing surplus while increasing diversity and fertility - In the macro-space, permaculture design has moved into degraded areas where broadacre systems have broken down - The urban space per square yard/meter is much more productive than rural: the smaller the land, the higher the production. - We need to aim for minimum land use coupled with maximum diversity and maximum nutrition - We need minimum food miles, minimum food time and no food guilt

9.1.8. 1.8 – The Evolution from Contemporary Agriculture to Permaculture [ANMTN]

9.1.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Patterning is central to design. It begins with contemplating how to efficiently create and regulate flow, function and yield while using minimal resources. We reach effective patterns by processes of selection, assembly, and site consideration. This leads to energy and production flows that we can observe for feedback on our designs. First, we reflect on the organic elements (humans, plants, animals), inorganic elements (materials, fuels, technology), and social elements (laws, economy, community) in our designs. Then, we can begin shaping the earth, creating our water supply, and planting in patterns. Through observation, the site will demonstrate what adjustments are required for better output, helping us to evolve the system into something more refined. Finally, we can teach others to replicate these patterns.

9.1.9. 1.9 – What is Permaculture Design [PDF]

9.1.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Permaculture Design is a unique assembly of structures, species, and social systems, as a unique pattern suited to a specific landscape, climate and culture of occupants.

10. Module 5: Climatic Factors

10.1. Modules 5.1 to 5.10

10.1.1. 5.1 – Chapter 5 Course Notes [PDF]

10.1.2. 5.2 – Introduction to Climatic Factors [VIDEO]

10.1.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Cite different climatic factors that affect the weather and seasons - Recognize that climate is a huge piece of the mainframe design BRIEF OVERVIEW Now, we will look at climate as a constant, focusing our knowledge. You’ll begin to understand the climate you are in and the difference between all climates. The lessons learned will prepare you to perform a climate analogue. You’ll be able to understand the effects of latitude, altitude, proximity to an ocean, the difference between east and west coasts, and the role a continent’s size plays in climate. This section will clarify climate so it can be used to refine your designs. Understanding climates is a very important piece to the mainframe design puzzle, and each site has its own unique climate to discover. KEY TAKEAWAYS - By the end of this chapter, you will know about the different constant-form climates. - You will understand the difference between climates and be able recognize the climate you are in. - You will be ready to perform climate analogues. You will know the effects of altitude, latitude, oceans, and landmasses on climate. - You will have clarified the meaning of climate so that it can be used to refine your designs. - And, you will have acquired one more important tool needed for mainframe permaculture design.

10.1.3. 5.3 – Classification of Broad Climate Zones [VIDEO]

10.1.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Classic ways of classifying climates include the Köppen system as well as the Holdridge life zone matrix, and together these systems can help us bring early focus to our climate analyses. We should also look at USDA plant hardiness zones, which will help us choose the plants we include in a design. But, there are many other factors that change climates. Every 100 meters of elevation creates climatic changes equivalent to one degree of latitude; however, daylight hours remain the same, so we have to learn to account for that. Maritime locations (near seas, oceans. and even large lakes) moderate temperatures, whereas continental locations, far from the coast, mean larger swings between summer and winter. Other climatic factors can also affect a location. Winds and ocean currents make differences. Long weather cycles, such as El Niño, can be considered, as can other cycles with the sun and moon. Precipitation is obviously very important, but it is much more than just rainfall. Snow melt, ice melt, fog, and condensation drip can be major players in the water available somewhere. We try to include consideration of all these things, no easy task. Then, there are three big climatic zones: the tropic, temperate, and arid zones. The tropics can be split into further classifications, including equatorial (2 wet seasons), wet/dry, dry tropics, and the subtropics. In the tropics, summers tend to be wet, winters dry. Temperate zones also break down further into cold zones with deep snow, cool zones with little snow, warm zones with rare snowfall, and Mediterranean. In temperate zones, winter is wet, and summer sometimes dangerously dry, as in the Mediterranean areas. Lastly, arid areas, too, can be hot, warm, cool, and even cold at high altitudes, or even sub-arid. Arid climates have more evaporation than rainfall. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Classic climate classification tools we can use include the Köppen system, Holdridge life zones, and USDA plant hardiness zones. - Other climate factors include altitude (100 meters of elevation equals one degree of latitude), maritime locations (moderate) and continental locations (big swings in temperature). - Further climate influences come from winds, ocean currents, long weather cycles, sun/moon cycles, and precipitation, including snow/ice melt, fog and condensation drip. - The three big climatic zones are the tropics, temperate, and arid.

10.1.4. 5.4 – Patterning in Global Weather Systems [VIDEO]

10.1.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Extremes at the polar ice caps spill high pressure from 60 degrees to 80 degrees latitude, sending spokes (fronts) all the way to 30 degrees. From the poles, there are 15 to 18 spokes, and these are spun by the earth’s rotation, usually in an easterly direction. Within the spokes, cold, low pressure systems spin in one direction, hot and high pressure the other the direction. These pressure systems mesh to cause weather events. The summer and winter tilt of earth send systems north or south, creating the seasons. We need to know these sorts of norms for design. For example, western coasts generally receive rains every ten days. It’s possible this can change due to other factors in play. But, when we know these constants, we can start to identify, understand, and adjust for irregularities. KEY TAKEAWAYS - The polar ice caps spill high pressure in 15 to 18 spokes that reach all the way to 30 degrees latitude. - Within these spokes (fronts), there are low pressure systems of heavy cold air spinning down towards high pressure systems of hot air, which are spinning the opposite direction. - From the equator, high pressure systems are released according to the earth’s tilt, which creates the different seasons. - When we know these sorts of constants, we can begin to understand when and why irregularities occur.

10.1.5. 5.5 – Precipitation [VIDEO]

10.1.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List different types of precipitation - Outline average precipitation statistics for the world - Recognize the need to understand extremes as much as (or even more than) averages - Discover different processes that cause rain BRIEF OVERVIEW Precipitation is not just rainfall but a combination of many elements of water falling from clouds: rain, snow, hail, etc. Condensation and fogs also make a huge difference and can be the deciding factors between aridity and not. The average rainfall for the world is 860 mm (34 inches), with semi-arid regions averaging 250 mm (10 inches) and arid areas even less. These averages can be affected by long-term cycles, such as the jet stream or ocean currents, but the biggest effect on precipitation is from deforestation. The removal of forests reduces condensation. Of course, we can change this. By design, we can begin to harvest extra water, we can store that water, and then we can conserve the water. We can choose species carefully, with plants that will yield even in drier times. Some people can survive and grow gardens in arid climates with rain as little 100 mm (4 inches) a year, so we can do it easily on global averages. Averages, though, are not as useful in extremes. We have to consider the maximum 24-hour occurrence. We have to think about the 100-year flood, which will have marked and shaped the landscape. High rainfall might limit light and stunt flowering, or low rainfall may allow too much sun. In cold climates, ice may cover everything and limit output. There are different processes that cause rain. The orographic effect is when landscape changes weather, lifting the air so that moisture cools and falls. The frontal effect is caused by the cycles of polar systems. The convection effect is when columns of hot air rise, hitting cool air and then dispersing as rain. Rain, though, is different than dew, which is caused by moisture settling from slow-moving air, which can make a huge difference in more arid climates. In these climates, stones and scattered shrubs can be effective at capturing moisture from dew. Fog is formed where warm air and water meet or cool air and land meet. Orographic fogs occur when warm air climbs mountains and meets cool air. We can work with all of these conditions to harvest and store more water, something that is very important for designers to understand. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Precipitation is more than rainfall. It includes snow, hail, fog, condensation, etc. - The average rainfall for the world is 860 mm (34 inches), with semi-arid regions dropping down to 250 mm (10 inches) on average. - The biggest effect on precipitation levels is deforestation, something we can affect. By design, we can harvest, store, and conserve water. - We must also consider the extremes of weather, such as the maximum rainfall for 24 hours and the 100-year flood. - Processes that cause rain include orographic, frontal, and convection effects. - Dew is caused by slow-moving air that leaves moisture behind, and it can make a huge difference in arid landscapes. - Fog occurs for many different reasons, and it can also be a major source of precipitation. - It’s important to realize as designers that we can work with all of these elements and processes.

10.1.6. 5.6 – Spiral Air Cells Around the South Pole [ANMTN]

10.1.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Looking up at the South Pole, we can see the earth spinning clockwise, west to east, and that creates a drag effect. The result of this effect is twelve to eighteen cloud bands that cycle through the southern hemisphere around every ten days. At the South Pole, there is a high pressure system that spins counter-clockwise, surrounding by pressure systems turning clockwise, themselves surrounded by high pressure systems once again moving anti-clockwise. This circulation of oceanic air masses acts as an engine for the atmosphere.

10.1.7. 5.7 – Wind Direction and Pressure Cells [ANMTN]

10.1.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW There are polar high pressure easterly winds that move between the 90 and 60 degree latitudes. Then, the winds switch to westerly, moving slightly north or south towards the closer pole in between 60 and 30 degrees. At 30 degrees, the “horse latitudes”, there are high pressure calms, and between them, there are the trade winds, again moving eastwards with a curvature towards the nearer pole. At the equator, there are the “doldrums”, a calm that is occasionally broken by monsoons and cyclones.

10.1.8. 5.8 – Radiation [VIDEO]

10.1.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Name some of the weather extremes we need to know of - Distinguish radiation as the biggest input of energy in our systems - Describe the path that the sun’s energy takes to reach the earth’s surface - Give some examples of using nature to guide our designs to take advantage of the sun - Relate how garden designs can create appropriate temperatures and growing conditions - Explain how thermal mass systems help with passive heating and cooling BRIEF OVERVIEW Radiation is the energy of the sun and the biggest input of energy into our systems. That energy is transformed through photosynthesis in plants. Understanding the basics of light and heat also helps to develop comfortable dwellings and habitats. Evaporation cools things, and condensation warms them. Earth reflects 70% of the sun’s energy back into space, and we can utilize the remaining 30%. The ozone absorbs damaging ultraviolet light, protecting life on earth. Carbon dioxide traps heat reflected back to space, causing temperatures to rise and, in turn, causing sea levels to rise. All life is affected by light and temperature. We want dwellings that are not too hot but not too cold, with adequate light to see. As designers, we can use design to our advantage. Observing how rainforests block light, we can design systems that create similar microclimates. Noting what reflects or absorbs light and heat, we can utilize those to help us regulate systems. Knowing cold air falls and pools in low spaces, we can make better choices with landscapes, realizing the best locations for different functions. Thermal mass can be used to absorb heat and trap cold. Temperatures at extremes limit our designs. At 48 degrees Celsius (118 F), most species of poultry don’t survive. At 36 degrees (97 F), soil temperatures are too high for transplants to survive. At 0 Celsius (32 F), many plants are affected by frost. We need to know about extreme frosts, floods, droughts, etc. of the 100-year events. Heat transfers from warm to cool. Warm air transfers into cool thermal mass objects during the day. At night, the air cools, and the heated thermal mass objects release heat into the cooler air. We can keep very warm by using this form of radiated heat. This system works well in cool environments, but it’s the opposite of what we want in the tropics. So, there we’d use systems more suited to deflecting heat away from our homes. In garden designs, we have lots of conditions we can create. Over-story trees can act as insulators, trapping heat and shielding frost. Seeds germinate in a variety of conditions, so we can do things—burning, exposing to cold temperatures, soaking in water, feeding to animals—to imitate the requirements. Day length can vary greatly due to latitude and can adjust how seeds germinate or plants flower. We can design to gain these advantageous and moderate drastic changes. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Radiation is the sun’s energy and our biggest energy input. - The ozone blocks ultraviolet radiation that is dangerous to life, and carbon dioxide traps heat, elevating temperature and, thus, sea levels. - All life is affected by temperature and light. - Knowing heat/light extremes and basic information about heat/light transfer allows us to create favorable conditions through design. - Not only can we design our homes to be efficiently heated and cooled, we can design our gardens to utilize similar principles.

10.1.9. 5.9 – Global Radiation [ANMTN]

10.1.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Most heat radiated by the sun to the earth is trapped by moisture, dust, and/or gases. Another small amount is released by the earth’s core itself. This is the basics of heat on our planet.

10.1.10. 5.10 – Effect of Light Passing through a Window [ANMTN]

10.1.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW When light passes through a window, it gets trapped and converted into heat. That heat is radiated into the thermal masses that it bounces off. This is important information for designing houses that heat and cool themselves.

10.2. Modules 5.11 to 5.20

10.2.1. 5.11 – Convection Loop or Thermosiphon [ANMTN]

10.2.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Thermo-siphons create convection loops. When closed with fluid in the loop, the top piece at least forty centimeters above the bottom, we will have a fluid with flow.

10.2.2. 5.12 – Thermal Belt [ANMTN]

10.2.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Thermal belts are found in the mid-slopes, and they are the areas generally best suited for gardens and houses. Frost can be trapped below the midslopes, in cold air lakes, with high mountain air pooling down. On a slope that faces the sun, we have more advantages, while shaded slopes will accentuate cold and inhibit evaporation, requiring much different species.

10.2.3. 5.13 – Clearings in Trees for Frost Protection [ANMTN]

10.2.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Frost protection can be aided by clearings in forests and/or pits in the soil. If there are steep clearings in the forest (or pits in the soil) half the width of the height, frost is greatly lessened or even eliminated. On the other hand, if the clearing is three times the height, with sides sloping outwards, then frost increases. We can use this effect in design to moderate the climatic concerns of frost effects.

10.2.4. 5.14 – Wet and Dry Sides of a Forest Clearing [ANMTN]

10.2.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Micro-climates can create micro-habitats, utilizing the sun, rain, and wind. Wet, shady, high pressure spots occur upwind, where as dry, hot, low pressure is downwind. Designing with relation to these effects, we gain vast and diverse habitat potential.

10.2.5. 5.15 – Wind [VIDEO]

10.2.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Discuss the effects wind can have on our systems - Generalize prevailing winds on a global scale - Define wind “flagging” and tell how it is useful for design - Describe what makes an efficient, multi-functional windbreak BRIEF OVERVIEW Wind influences light and heat, and we can manage its behavior through designing windbreaks and wind tunnels. The wind carries stuff like salt, sand, and pollutants, which we want it to drop before it reaches us, and strong winds can reduce production significantly while causing serious damage. For windbreak systems, we need a list of local climate wind-tolerant trees. These can be easily found by searching neighborhoods to find trees that haven’t been susceptible to wind flagging, the leaning that can be seen in trees bent as a result of the wind. Wind flagging demonstrates the direction of the wind, and such trees provide this information for any site, an important consideration because local landscape features can change the way prevailing winds behave. Prevailing winds are predictable. In the southern hemisphere, between 0 and 35 latitudes, winds move southeast in winter and northwest in summer. In the same region of the north, winds move northeast in winter or southwest in summer. Above the 35th parallel, all the way to the poles, the wind moves westerly, creating wetter environments where it hits land and drier where it leaves. These constants can be accounted for, and we can design accordingly. Windbreaks should be around 40% permeable, with 60% of wind lifting, and these breaks are beneficial in many ways. They save energy in our homes. They reduce stress on our animals. Often they are constructed of nitrogen-fixing, soil-building plants that provide predatory habitats. They provide forage for domestic animals and natural barriers to wild animals. They increase snow melt, reduce erosion, and can potentially up garden yields. Areas should be assessed for wind issues like hurricanes and tornadoes. Hurricanes cause tidal bulges, serious winds, massive changes in pressure, and intense rains that cause floods. Tornadoes occur where hot, moist air meets cold air masses and can happen unpredictably over both land and water. We need to be prepared, understanding what will happen and designing for it. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Wind influences light and heat, and we can manage it with windbreaks and wind tunnels. - The wind flagging of trees demonstrates wind direction and strength, and is evident on any site. - Prevailing winds are predictable and should be accounted for in our designs. - Wind breaks should be 40-50% permeable, and they provide many benefits to system productivity. - We can use 30% of land for wind breaks with no loss in yields. - We must assess areas for wind events and adjust our designs to deal with the results.

10.2.6. 5.16 – Methods of Establishing Windbreaks [ANMTN]

10.2.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Wind breaks trap warm air and provide shelter from cold winds, increasing micro-climate advantage. Timber flat fence, earth block or stacked tyre walls or earth mounds, with plants behind them create a sheltered effect that can eventually be taken over by our wind-break plantings.

10.2.7. 5.17 – Permeability of Windbreaks [ANMTN]

10.2.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The permeability of wind breaks changes their effects. With 60% permeability, we get a 20% wind speed reduction with a sheltered effect for a distance twelve times the height. But, at 50%, the wind reduces by 50%, and the sheltered space is 27 times the height of the wind break. At 100%, i.e. no wind, there is obviously a 100% wind reduction but for a distance of only 15 times the height of the break, and with the consequence of creating severe and destructive eddies where the wind can finally pass. Ultimately, our field must fit inside the harmonic shaping effect caused by wind breaks, and that is not a rectangle behind the break but rather a harmonic flow pattern, at points slightly narrower than the wind break.

10.2.8. 5.18 – Water Use and Wheat Produced [ANMTN]

10.2.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Measured across a hedged field, wheat production shows higher yields on the eastern and western edges, as well as increased water use due to the extra production. This is the edge effect. The hedge can be designed to be productive as well with food and/or nitrogen-fixing plants, increasing yield while diversifying the field.

10.2.9. 5.19 – Windbreak Configurations [ANMTN]

10.2.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Wind break requirements change the configurations we should use, so we should analyze to decide which configuration we need. They can be strong ridgelines, able to withstand gusts and constant wind events. There can be windbreaks that provide good shelter for tall, susceptible vines. On the coasts, we need to lead into the breaks, lifting the wind from low levels to high spots, with plants that are able to withstand the salty air. On pastures and fields, the wind break needs to be 20% of the area to 80% protected spaces. Desert crops require more open wind breaks due to precipitation requirement and how condensation occurs in water-deprived environments. Mixed food forest orchards have high, sheltering edges and are buffered by wind via legume-fruit interplants used to increase

10.2.10. 5.20 – Complex Nets for Variable Winds [ANMTN]

10.2.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Fencing can protect from damaging wind. Using complex nets bowed away from the winds creates sun traps and continuous shelter, which increases yield over the total area. Even devoting 20% of total land space to shelter, we can lose no production in crop, and we can also utilize the shelter belt as another productive element in the garden, which would increase complete harvests.

10.3. Modules 5.21 to 5.27

10.3.1. 5.21 – Hurricanes or Cyclones [ANMTN]

10.3.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Hurricanes (northern hemisphere) or cyclones (southern hemisphere) occur over oceans where it is warm. In the north, they spin anti-clockwise, and in the south, the opposite. Rain and tides are most intense on the pole, the low pressure, side of these events.

10.3.2. 5.22 – Tornadoes [ANMTN]

10.3.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Tornadoes happen over land and water at sheer points between masses of hot and cold air. This meeting of different air masses causes intense low pressure vortices, with cold and dry air twisting downwards while hot, humid air moves upwards. These events are extremely destructive but short-term, and shelter is the main design element needed for them.

10.3.3. 5.23 – Firestorms [ANMTN]

10.3.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Firestorm tornadoes form at the front of a fire, caused by the heated and still somewhat moist air from what has recently burned rising as it meets the cold air of the forest yet to be burned. These tornadoes can create secondary firestorms downwind (up to 10 km) from the fire front.

10.3.4. 5.24 – Landscape Effects [VIDEO]

10.3.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List landscape features that have distinct effects on the climate - Contrast the climates of maritime and continental regions -Generalize the seasons in the three major climates - Explain the effect (and lack thereof) of altitude on the climate - Differentiate between the specific climatic effects that valleys can have BRIEF OVERVIEW Distinct landscapes have different effects on climate. Maritime areas, near large bodies of water, moderate climates, creating cooler summers and warmer winters. Continental regions, far from oceans, create extremes in weather. And, latitude changes climate and day length as one moves further from the equator. There are three major climates: temperate, the tropics, and drylands. Temperate climates have winter rains and dry summers. The wet/dry tropics have very wet summers with very dry winters, while equatorial tropics have two distinct rainy seasons. Lastly, drylands mostly occur along the subtropical zones, and they have more evaporation than precipitation. With altitude, every 100 meters we go up is like one degree latitude away from the equator but without the length of day changing. Day temperatures can be very constant (an eternal spring), but nights can drop below freezing due to the thin air. High altitude, then, limits crops in the tropics because the seasonal changes required for the lower temperatures don’t happen. Valleys have a major effect. High, shaded valleys can have a huge cooling effect, whereas sunny valleys send hot air up in the daytime, creating wind effects. In the tundra or deserts, valleys are great for protection from ice blasts or sand blasts, respectively. Design can always make an adjustment. We just need to know what we are looking for. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Distinct landscapes have different effects on climate. - Maritime moderates, continental causes extremes, and latitude changes climate and day length. - There are three big climate classifications: the tropics, temperate and drylands. - Altitude changes climate, with each 100 meters in altitude equating to one degree in latitude. However, it doesn’t change length of day. - Valleys also cause huge micro-climate change that we must note and use in our designs.

10.3.5. 5.25 – High Altitude Landscapes [ANMTN]

10.3.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW High altitude landscapes distort the general climate conditions of a region. High altitude spaces have higher radiation and ultraviolet levels, more extreme temperature variations, and more frequent precipitation (rain, fog, and snow). Frost traps in hollows and on plateaus form cold air lakes. At the mid-slopes, day winds rise and night winds fall. Rain occurs with less fog or cloud cover, leaving the days primarily clear. In the lower slopes, fogs occur at night and frost only in cold weather seasons, mostly in open country. Tree covered landscapes usually only get frost above the tree lines at night.

10.3.6. 5.26 – Valley Winds [ANMTN]

10.3.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Valley winds work on regular, daily cycles, moving downhill at night and in the early morning. They reverse to uphill around mid-day and through the afternoon. Birds use these winds for daily migrations, down from nests in the morning and back up later in the day.

10.3.7. 5.27 – Latitude Effect [VIDEO]

10.3.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The sub-polar latitudes have a very short growing season but very long days, and this makes photosynthesis very efficient. Near the coast, this is accentuated and moderated by the maritime effect. The soils become very fertile because they rest over winter. Traditional temperate crop fields can cover a few acres in full sun and retain fertility because they have long, low-light summer days. In the equatorial tropics, plants are oversupplied with light, and plants can’t handle the intensity. Shade becomes an asset. Bulkier crops come in 50-70% light exposure. Here, fields are better at two acres with shade. Between nine o’clock and three o’clock, the light is just too much, so we should plant shade trees, like papayas and fruiting palms to block the midday sun. Hot deserts, again, are different. We need smaller crop fields, closer to half an acre, because we have to deal with much more heat and evaporation. Over-stories of date palms can provide necessary shade. The plants native to each climate type, adapted to the light exposure and photosynthetic efficiencies, will grow more productively when we plant them where they are comfortable. We must design accordingly, growing what works rather than constantly working what grows. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Sub-polar latitudes have short, but intensive growing season, with long, low-light days creating efficient plant photosynthesis. - In temperate climates, soils rest over winter, making them very fertile, and low light allows full sun exposure to large fields. - In the tropics, the light is very intense, oversupplying plants with the photosynthetic needs. - Tropical fields should be less than half the size of temperate ones, and they should have shade trees. - Drylands require even smaller crop fields, as well as shade trees, to protect plants from intense sunlight. - Plants adapt to the photosynthesis that most readily occurs in climates they grow in, and our designs should utilize plants suited to where the site is.

11. Module 3: Methods of Design

11.1. Modules 3.1 to 3.10

11.1.1. 3.1 – Chapter 3 Course Notes [PDF]

11.1.1.1. Observing Before We Design In this chapter, we begin to involve ourselves in actual design processes. You learn to analyze what components should go into a design, how natural systems can and should be included, and where these things are best positioned on the site as a holistically engaged environment. You become aware the natural evolution that happens on the way to mature, stable systems, as well as methods used to replicate this evolution, albeit more quickly, within our designed landscapes. In “Methods of Design”, we move from the conceptual to constructive aspects of permaculture. Continued...

11.1.2. 3.2 – Introduction to Methods of Design [VIDEO]

11.1.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize where nature plays a huge role in permaculture design systems - Indicate that permaculture designs are zoned for efficiency - Repeat that systems evolve as they mature BRIEF OVERVIEW Now, we will begin actually designing systems. You’ll learn to analyze the components of a system, becoming familiar with what is included in designs. The lessons learned from nature will begin to fit thoughtfully into design systems, including energy flows and guilds of plants. You’ll be able to create zoned plans and know what to expect throughout the evolution of system, what changes to look for on the way to a mature, stable, and resilient garden. Now, we are moving into the constructive part of permaculture, graduating from concept to concrete. KEY TAKEAWAYS - By the end of this chapter, you will know how components work within a design and, thus, how to include them in it. - You will have taken lessons from nature and adapted them into design eco-systems, with harmonious flow and plant combinations. - You will have learned permaculture’s method of zoning for efficient design and how systems evolve from there. - You will have become aware of what changes to look out for as systems mature. You will be ready to actually design.

11.1.3. 3.3 – Analysis: Design by listing characteristics of components [VIDEO]

11.1.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Evaluate the inputs and outputs associated with different components - Describe components in respect to their input needs and productive outputs - Arrange system components so that they have meaningful connections BRIEF OVERVIEW The methods of design begin with analysis. We must list the components we wish to include in our system, as well as what is already there. We think about the placing the components in a way that puts them together usefully. We recognize the connections components could have with each other and are aware of the needs and outputs of each piece. Take chickens. Before we put them into a system, we need to think about how they integrate. We want the chickens to have healthy, thus productive life, and to do so, they require things like food, warmth, shelter, water, grit, calcium, dust and other chickens. Our system needs to provide all of these things. In return, we get outputs, such as eggs and meat, but also feathers, feather dust (a nitrogen element), manure, a lot of noise, and heat. We also get secondary products: other food from the eggs, feather dusters, compost, and biogas. Then, chickens are not all the same. Breeds have their own intrinsic characteristics. Some work well in cold climates, others in hot deserts. Some are flighty, others more grounded. There are size differences, reproductive differences, color differences, behavioral differences, and on and on. The more we learn, the more we can consider the connections we are going to work to make. We must ask where we can make connections between components: what use is the component to others, what needs can be supplied by other components, which components work or don’t work well with these components. It’s also important to consider the time element of these connections. It’s a question of both how and when, ultimately creating a pattern of optimal efficiency. We work to recognize as many components as possible. A small farm will inevitably have structures: a house, barn, glasshouse, chicken coop. There might be other animals, say cows or sheep or rabbits. The land will have different uses: gardens, pastures, food forests, fuel wood production. There will contextual elements, like labor and finance and skills and markets. There could be pre-existing external parts, maybe roads or water systems. For chickens, we might make several design choices. They produce heat, so perhaps we connect the chicken house to the glasshouse. They need bedding, so we could create a slope within the yard, such that they will eventually kick the bedding downhill. Below that, we can create a composting space for the spent bedding. Beyond that, it could be a garden, where the compost is applied, instead of needing to carry it elsewhere. Then, we could take rotten crops, weeds, and so on from the garden and glasshouse to feed the chickens. This is a simple example of connections. Fostering useful connections minimizes our work, making systems better for us and better for the components involved. We can design this from our desks, but we also have to get to the site and see that everything pieces together well, that the system is installed in a way that it will function as imagined. Thinking isn’t enough, we must act. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We must list and consider all components we hope to include or already exist in a system, considering the needs and outputs. - From our list, we work to put components together in useful ways, so that the components supply the needs and utilize the outputs of each other. - Component lists include everything from housing to other constructs (fences, windbreaks) to types of animals to ways land is used, roads, skills, energy, water, etc. - Establishing good connections between components minimizes our work and is better for the system. - These designs are full of information, but thinking alone isn’t enough. We must implement them at the ground level to insure they function properly.

11.1.4. 3.4 – Elements of a Total Design [PDF]

11.1.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The fundamental elements in a mainframe design is a beneficial assembly of elements in their proper components.

11.1.5. 3.5 – Elements of a Total Design [ANMTN]

11.1.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A design is an assembly of components so that they have beneficial interactions, and to do this, we must consider the elements of a design. There are site factors, such as water, landscape, and types of soil. We have to consider energy in terms of things like the necessary structures and appropriate technology available. Social elements — laws, community, culture, economics — have to play a role in our design process, as do abstract components like the timing of our design evolution, the data we gather at each stage, and the ever important permaculture ethics. Together all of these things can provide our design a positive assembly of components.

11.1.6. 3.6 – Integrated System Design [ANMTN]

11.1.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Integrated systems build connections between components making it possible for each component it serve the others. This plan of an integrated system assesses the potential for water, access, structures, zones, slopes and client requirements to increase productivity by enjoying the multiple benefits of correct relative placement.

11.1.7. 3.7 – Elements in a Designed System [PDF]

11.1.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A demonstration of all the different elements that can be involved in a designed system: - The water harvesting systems - Integrated crops; perennial and annual - Mixed animal systems - Rainwater harvesting - Passive renewable energy systems - All the way down to the sale of produce at the front gate It is a demonstration of how integrated permaculture can be even with a wood lot at the top of the property giving product fuel wood and trickle down nutrient from native system interaction.

11.1.8. 3.8 – Observation: Design by expanding on direct observations [VIDEO]

11.1.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize existing things that can be used to design advantage - Develop design strategies utilizing natural patterns already on site - Assemble elements for trials based on practical information BRIEF OVERVIEW We must use observation as a design tool, and this is something done on site, not at a desk. We have to go out and practice sitting around looking, learning to recognize things that can be used to our advantage. For example, how does rain affect the site? Or, what does the wildlife do to the land? The key is to switch off our minds first and be amazed by how nature is working. This can be done thematically, noting how weeds are growing in the system or the way animals are behaving. It can also be done instrumentally, measuring the pH of the soil or seeing where the landscape levels out. Or, there is an experiential approach, using the senses to get a feeling for the site. Then, you can develop a design strategy. We assess our data with no judgment. From there, we begin to speculate the meaning of the information, which can then be further researched in books or online. From this research, we can then talk to people with experience, either locally or experientially. We can now begin to link our elements together and discover patterns, or connections, already there. When we remain open-minded to what is already there and working, when we trial our strategies for practical information, we can design more effective strategies. In fact, the site begins to design itself. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Observation is a design tool and one that we can only use by being on site. - We have to study the site open-mindedly to recognize things that might be used to our advantage. - There are many approaches to observation: thematic, instrumental, experiential… - From our observations, we can make thoughtful trials to test our strategies. - Through careful observation and consideration, the site characteristics begin to shape the design itself.

11.1.9. 3.9 – A List of Priorities [PDF]

11.1.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW This diagram illustrates a list of priorities in relation to going forward from start point towards a distant goal where decisions get changed along the way.

11.1.10. 3.10 – Deduction from Nature: Design by adopting lessons from nature [VID]

11.1.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Interpret nature for design systems based on bio-mimicry - Break down the layers of a forest system - Explain the time element within natural and permaculture systems BRIEF OVERVIEW Our lessons from nature, what we learn from observation, should be put to careful application. We are attempting bio-mimicry of the natural systems that work around us. Forests are layered systems. They have large, canopy trees. Understory trees are followed by woody shrubs and bushes. Climbers are winding their way through these. On the ground level, there are herbaceous plants, groundcovers, and bulbous plants. This can be slightly different for different climates, but there are always layers. There is also the time element within the system. A forest grows on a fallen forest, which creates a fungal soil. A forest begins with pioneering species, often nitrogen-fixing plants and trees. We can replicate this. We can use local nitrogen-fixing species to start our forests. Then, we can fill them with food-producing plants. We can eventually, once its mature enough, even introduce our domesticated animals into the system. We need to look at how the natural systems are working. We think about how water flows, where it absorbs into the earth. We think about what productive trees are surviving on their own, how trees and plants reproduce, and where systems might extend themselves. We think about how habitats for animals, elements like rockeries (lizards) or ponds (frogs), can benefit the design. Once we know the rules, we can use them to our advantage. We can select productive ally species or carefully eradicate unwanted species. We can use landscape and other components to reduce our work and maximize the garden’s efficiency. We just have to find the niches in nature and fill them with what we want. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We have to use our observation to learn from nature and carefully apply those lessons with bio-mimicry. - A forest is a layered system, with canopy then understory trees, shrubs and bushes and vines above herbaceous plants, groundcovers, and the bulbous roots. - Forests are also cyclical systems, new growing on the decaying of old, pioneering nitrogen-fixers paving the way for more permanent trees. - We can replicate forests to create food-producing systems that behave the same way. - We must also learn water systems, reproductive cycles of trees, and other elements that can create, repair, regenerate, and extend their own designs. - Once we know the rules of nature, we can use them to our benefit, reducing our work input and maximizing the system’s efficiency.

11.2. Modules 3.11 to 3.20

11.2.1. 3.11 – Options and Decisions [VIDEO]

11.2.1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Relate how design requirements are more than the physical site - Analyze options available for and resulting from design decisions - List considerations to explore before finalizing a design choice BRIEF OVERVIEW Design is a selection of pathways based on decisions. There are always options to explore. It helps to view them as a tree, in which each branch taken leads to a different set of choices. Our job is to keep our options as open as possible. Good designers sequence their options before making decisions. They start with a potential product, but before advancing, they also consider things like the external crops necessary for said product, the capital needed to start it up, the skills and/or educational requirements, how the product will be processed, if the the product is marketable, and what managing the whole design takes. Design requirements are much more than just a physical site. They include lifestyle changes and resources. Good design is but a starting point, a previously thought-out approach in a confusing situation. We don’t really learn the totality or limits of our options until we are doing rather than planning, and that means we might have to adjust design based on some limited trials. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Design is a choice of options created by each decision made, resembling a branching tree. - Part of designing well is exploring the sequenced pathways on which our design decisions take us. - We have to consider more than just the physical requirements of the design, including aspects like lifestyle, start-up capital, and resources. - Design, though, is only the starting point, a guiding light in a confusing time. - We can’t fully realize our options and limits until our design is put into action.

11.2.2. 3.12 – Options and Decisions [ANMTN]

11.2.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Designs start with our priorities, which in the case of permaculture are centered on the three ethics: earth care, people care, and return of surplus. From there, we measure our options and move into the primary stages of action, collecting water and changing landscapes carefully. From our initial action, we can begin reading the results to consider our options for moving forward. In this way, our systems evolve based on our experience, the yields produce, and the benefits of the design. This is how we advance sensibly towards our eventual goal of easy abundance within a healthy system.

11.2.3. 3.13 – Data Overlay: Design by map overlays [VIDEO]

11.2.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Give examples of where to access property maps - Contrast observation of the actual site versus what’s on a map - Arrange mainframe components based on maps BRIEF OVERVIEW Maps are very important tools in permaculture design. They are how we lay data atop other data. Technology, like Google Earth and Google Maps, help tremendously with this, as do Lidar surveys, where they are available. Smart phones also help with photos, records, surveying apps, sun tracking tools, and so on. But, none of these replace being on site. Maps don’t show everything. There could be an undetected shadow spot at a potential housing site, a habitat for an endangered specie, or an old growth forest. The real map is the territory, and the people for whom we are designing, who might have cultural or financial restraints that factor in. In the end, an actual map is just a visual representation of the location. With them, however, we can begin to plot out mainframe structures to our design. That starts with considering water, such as noting possible dam sites or contours for swales. We then look at roads, making our access routes work on contour or along ridgelines. From the location of water and access, we can plot out the positions of structures. With these in place, fences, irrigation, animal movement and more start to fall into place. However, all earthworks need to be examined on site so that variations and surprises can be addressed. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Maps are important tools in permaculture design. - Google Earth, Google Maps and Lidar are all sources of very useful maps. - Smart phones — photos, surveying apps, etc. — are another great technology for designing sites. - Maps do not replace being on site, as they don’t show everything or factor in the human With maps, we can begin designing mainframe elements, starting with dams, roads and then structures. - Once water, access, and structural positioning are there, other factors, like fences and irrigation, begin to fall into place. - All earthworks need to be decided on site so that we can factor in surprise features.

11.2.4. 3.14 – Random Assembly [VIDEO]

11.2.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Categorize components, elements, and connections for a design - Generate potential assemblies to enhance design efficiency - Recognize innovative advantages over conventional approaches BRIEF OVERVIEW We are actually looking at random assemblies created from lists. For example, we have our list of components, elements, and connection strategies. Components would be things like house, pond, poultry, compost, raft, glasshouse, etc. Alongside those, we might have trellises or duck house, smaller pieces. And, our connection strategies are simple words like on, attached, beside, under, and so on. Then, we explore our options. For example, glasshouses are often attached to houses. This creates heat, but perhaps too much heat in the summer. So, we put a trellis over the glasshouse so that a deciduous vine can create shade in the summer. We could also put a composting system in the glasshouse for another source of heat, or we could attach it to a chicken coop for yet another source of heat. By doing these random assemblies, we can come up with innovative advantages within our design, moving away from convention and into something more efficient. We are looking at assemblies backwards, working them down into functions before we actually put them together. Permaculture systems, in this way, are much less restrictive than conventional, which tend to demand absolute control. Instead, we are checking all the possibilities for how nature can work for us through design. KEY TAKEAWAYS - One unique design strategy is to piece together a random assembly of components and connections to find innovative designs. - We need to make lists of the necessary components in the design, as well as ways things might fit together — on, above, under, next to — and explore. - By allowing creating random assemblies, looking at how things can function together, we come up with uniquely useful design approaches. - Permaculture systems allow for this sort of innovation, whereas conventional design starts with absolute control.

11.2.5. 3.15 – The Classic Random Assembly of Lists [PDF]

11.2.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Creative thinking can lead to unexpected positive connections. After analysing elements, sectors, slope and orientation, another method of analysis is to list major elements and look at the connection of combining them randomly. Look at connections that make a system which is self cycling with a limited amount of energy inputs. Efficiency goes up as we reduce inputs and good connections reduce work.

11.2.6. 3.16 – Random Assembly Selection [ANMTN]

11.2.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW One important technique used in design is the random assembly of elements from a list. This is how we can think outside of convention, discovering new and useful ways that elements can connect. For example, trellises might work well over water systems or as shades next to windows. Houses might have any number of elements — greenhouses, storage sheds, tanks — attached or under or within them, depending on the needs within a particular design. We have to look at the action elements, the connections and combinations — in, on, under, above, beside, within, etc. — that provide us with previously unrealized benefits.

11.2.7. 3.17 – Flow Diagrams: Design for work places [VIDEO]

11.2.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Analyze the needs and extraneous results (waste) of activities - Create flow diagrams in order to design efficient work spaces - Demonstrate how a design can minimize movement

11.2.8. 3.18 – Zone and Sector Analysis [VIDEO]

11.2.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain the role of the different zones in a permaculture design - Identify different energy sectors that will affect zoning - Formulate a plan for which components go in which zone - Arrange zones in a malleable manner suited to the site - Summarize the size ratios for each zone in a system BRIEF OVERVIEW We design by applying our master plan in conceptual patterns, moving the energy centrally concentrated into large spaces of dispersal. Designs start at Zone 0, or our homes, and we make them efficient. They are designed in tune with the sun and seasons to heat and cool themselves, to catch and store their own water, and to have their own waste cycles. We use renewable, natural materials when possible and make comfortable places to rest and relax. Zone 1 is the high traffic area that surrounds our home, where we visit most often and are in most control. This area supplies the bulk of our needs. We grow kitchen crops here. We may have quiet animals, such as fish, rabbits, and composting worms. This area produces more food per square meter than anywhere else in our design. It’s our system, the human garden. Next is Zone 2, and here things become more involved in natural processes. We assembly trees that function like food forests and require less attention. We put main crop garden for our staples and storage foods. We have noisier animals, like poultry and perhaps milking cows or goats. There might be a wood lot for coppicing fire wood, and there might be windbreaks and hedgerows. In Zone 3, the grazing zone, components become much larger, moving into pastures, large grazing animals, our first big wind breaks, and possible major wood lots. We might even have some very hardy fruit trees with rough mulching. Zone 4, then, is more of a wild forest zone, designed for conservation or perhaps fungi or pole beams or bamboo. It gets very little attention, perhaps only occasional pruning. The last zone, Zone 5, is just wilderness, and it is used for recreation and observation. We use “visits per year” analysis to help us place things in zones. For example, Zone 1 includes things that require daily attention. Zone 2 becomes more seasonal, 3 more inclined to yearly cycles, and Zone 4 might be decades of waiting on a large timber tree. By assessing the visits per year, and combining the effort required for those visits, we cut down significantly on our work. Zones, too, are designed with size ratios. Zone 1 for a small family should be about a quarter of an acre (1000 sq. meters), Zone 2 only one or two acres (4000-8000 sq. meters). Zone 3 gets significantly larger with a few acres up to tens of acres, and Zone 4 could be upwards of a 100 acres. Beyond that, Zone 5, it’s limitless wilderness. Bodies of water in each zone reflect the size. These ratios are important: A large Zone 1, such an intense system, would never be finished. Several things can affect the zone design, creating variations of spacing. We can have functional corridors, giving Zone 0 a view of nature, or Zone 3 milk cows access to Zone 1 milk barns. Other elements like slope, orientation, soils, vegetative cover, and land size can all change how we arrange our zones, or even include certain ones. In addition to zones, we design by energy sectors. This includes midsummer and midwinter sun sectors. It could also be the direction from which wind and rain come, or an area with hot and dry — possibly fire-spreading — wind, or spot with a good view. It could be an area susceptible to noise, dust, or unpleasant smells. It could be a flood zone or a frost zone. We account for all of these energy sectors and place our elements in accordance. Our elements can either be a means of accepting the energy or blocking it, such that they are performing functions in relation to the sectors. Each element can perform multiple functions, and for each function, there should be multiple elements attending to them. When we apply designs this way, thoughtfully addressing energy sectors, not only do we maximize our design efficiency but added advantages will reveal themselves. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We design by applying patterns to our master plan, and these patterns concentrate energy in the center and disperse outwards. - Zone 0 is our home, built to be naturally efficient, utilizing climatic effects to meet our needs. - Zone 1 is surrounds our home and includes our kitchen garden and elements that need the most attention. - Zone 2 becomes more in tune with natural systems. It has food forests, small animals, and broad-scale crops. - Zone 3 is much less attended and is meant for grazing animals and hardy trees. - Zone 4 is a designed forest left to grow wild, with only occasional pruning or harvesting. - Zone 5 is wilderness, used for recreation and observation. - Zones have particular size ratios in relation to the intensity with which they are maintained. - Variations in zone arrangement can be caused by functional corridors, slope, orientation, soils, existing vegetation, and the size of the land. It’s situational. - Energy sectors also play an important role in how we arrange the zones and elements within our design. - Each element should perform multiple functions, and each function should be performed by multiple elements.

11.2.9. 3.19 – The Basic Ground Plan for Zone and Sector Analysis [PDF]

11.2.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Zone and Sector Analysis: This design is an example of a large property patterned carefully with zones and sectors. It demonstrates how we plan and design over a large area using all the land and identifying all the uses across the total landscape, even into Zone 5 wilderness.

11.2.10. 3.20 – Ground Plan for an Urban Design [ANMTN]

11.2.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Even in urban designs, where water may come from mains, we still first consider water collection from sources like roofs and hard surfaces that can be distributed throughout the system. There can still be structures beyond the house: small animal coops, compost, worm bins, etc. We can still use orientation and slope to our advantage in creating small food forests, vegetable beds, herb gardens, and productive ponds. We can utilize green manure legumes, rock walls, and deciduous vines (shade in summer, sun in winter). In reality, small spaces are usually much more productive because they can be given much more attention per square meter.

11.3. Modules 3.21 to 3.33

11.3.1. 3.21 – Urban Garden Intensity [PDF]

11.3.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW This design is an example of an urban permaculture property. It illustrates productive abundance in small space design.

11.3.2. 3.22 – Sector Analysis [ANMTN]

11.3.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The sector map goes over the conceptual zone map. In it, we account for the winter and summer sun angles, including sunrise and sunset. We note the incoming winds, both hot and cold, with particular attention to fire hazards. There are view sectors, preserving good views or blocking bad ones. We have to be aware of wildlife interaction on the site, from which direction rain blows in, and possibilities of frost and/or flood. Our goal will be to buffer out the detrimental and invite in the beneficial.

11.3.3. 3.23 – Broad Humid Landscape Profile [PDF]

11.3.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW This is an example of some of the principles of landscape analysis where the placement of property access, water supply, forested areas, grazing, windbreaks and cropland are dependant on the relation to the slope analysis and the site planning.

11.3.4. 3.24 – Broad Humid Landscape Profile [ANMTN]

11.3.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW In a landscape, we must analyze the area for the best placement for access routes, water catchments, forests, and crop production. The ideal position is mid-slope, just below the key point, where concave landscape becomes convex. At the top or a slope, if there is a broad ridge, it could be used for grazing land and possibly high water storage. Or, if it is a steep ridge, it should be forested to encourage stability. Integrated forest systems help to control the flow of nutrients, slowing movement through the system. They also change the flow of air, warming it as it moves through the trees. The mid-slope area is the best place to gain productivity and increase desirable microclimates, while avoiding the effects of cold air lakes or frost zones in the valley.

11.3.5. 3.25 – Zoning of Information and Ethics [VIDEO]

11.3.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Describe how permaculture designs minimize the damage we cause - Break down our role in each zone of a permaculture design - Recognize how and where it is appropriate to set up a new system BRIEF OVERVIEW Permaculture is a design system that centers around people. It helps us minimize and responsibly address the damage we cause to the wilderness, so we become stewards of nature rather than destroyers of it. Our destructiveness comes from a lack of information. In Zone 1, we have garden, but it is for more than just food: We learn from it. We can take this knowledge into Zone 2, where we still have guiding hand, but nature in all its complexity begins to play a much larger role. Moving further out into the zones, our designs become more and more dependent on natural system that we can use without exploiting. In our design, as with nature, all things — pests, weeds, animals, fruit trees — have a realized purpose. Nature is endlessly complex and evolving. We discovered hundreds of new species every year. Even in our controlled setting of Zone 1, we have only facilitated, not created, nature to take its course in a way that’s beneficial for us. When setting up our systems, we need to be very careful about disturbing established wilderness. There are plenty of spaces that have already been settled, where our designs can help repair broken systems rather than tearing down functioning ones. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Permaculture designs focus on people, providing our needs while minimizing the damage we cause in doing so. - Our destructiveness often comes from a lack of knowledge about the effects of what we do. - We control our Zone 1 gardens, which allows us to learn from this and apply it in Zone 2, which is more dependent on nature. - As we move further from the center of the design, we become more dependent on nature. - We must be careful about settling in the wilderness; instead, choosing to rehabilitate debilitated system that have already been settled.

11.3.6. 3.26 – Incremental Design [VIDEO]

11.3.6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Appraise a trial system’s performance to conserve energy in broad application - Modify designs based on results rather than working against nature BRIEF OVERVIEW When we install a permaculture design, we are merely starting a process. It will require continuous small changes, necessary adaptations that build efficiency and improve system performance. We have been selective about our positioning, careful to conserve energy, and now must continually accept feedback as to how the system is working, which will lead us to thought on how to improve it. For example, the overshot waterwheel is one of the most efficient machines we have. A water flow moves a wheel, turning a shaft and producing power. Then, the water continues along its route. In turn, we get energy. Over time, we have managed to improve from collect 60% of the energy from that turning shaft to 85%. This took hundreds of years and was the result of continuous adaptation from careful consider feedback information. It’s important to remember this when applying permaculture to naturally complex systems: We will have to adapt, possibly forever, but that is okay because we are moving in a positive direction. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Installing a design begins a process of continual adaptation to improve efficiency and performance. - We must trial our systems, accept feedback, and adjust. This can be year after year after year. - When applying design to complex natural systems, we must remember that it will evolve and require us to adapt with it.

11.3.7. 3.27 – Summary of Design Methods [VIDEO]

11.3.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Assess the whole landscape - Choose plants, structure details, system management, features, etc. - Relate the changes that both the landscape and the lifestyle will undergo BRIEF OVERVIEW When we begin to design a property, we need to assess and make reports about the whole landscape. What’s the soil like? The slope? Drainage? Which particular crops are well suited for what’s there? Where will these crops go? What treatments — swales, terraces, lime, drainage — need to be done to the property? We start with a very generalist approach to the design, not specializing but looking at how the land as whole can be used. Designs will require advising multiple disciplines. There were, of course, be a physical change to the landscape. There will also be a vast biological change, including how humans interact within the design, which also means a huge change in the residents’ lifestyle. All things will now be functioning with natural systems, so it’s very relevant that clients are aware of what’s to come and learn with the design as it progresses. Many different things comprise this summary. It should consist of plant lists and structure details. There should be an explanation of how to manage the system, with consideration of the owners’ ethics, resources, skills and tools. Existing or special features should be realized, included, and knowingly integrated so that the natural system is provided for. Through this, access routes should be really well defined, which is the crux of efficiency. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We must make summary of the landscape as a whole, including things like the soil, crop possibilities, fence lines. - We are taking a generalists approach here, providing the overall feel for how the land will be. - Implemented designs change the landscape, the biology, and the lifestyle of those on the property, and it’s important that clients realize and want this. - Within the summary, the holistic approach to the land should be addressed: plant lists, structures, management, existing features, access routes…

11.3.8. 3.28 – The Concept of Guilds in Nature and Design [VIDEO]

11.3.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Assemble guilds with appropriate plant combinations - Devise other (not plant) elements to include in plant guilds - Express the positive effect of each element on the central element of a guild BRIEF OVERVIEW Guilds are about creating species interactions that are beneficial, positioning plants, animals and elements within a design so that they help each other. Often guilds are clustered around a central element. Apple tree guilds are quite popular. Besides the apple tree, they might contain comfrey, a plant high in minerals, which feeds the apple tree. They might have spring bulbs to cover the ground as the weather warms but not compete with the apple tree in the summer. Fennel or dill might be there for pest control, deterring pests and attracting predatory species, like wasps. Legumes could fix nitrogen in the soil. Other trees might provide shelter from frost or shade from the sun. Beyond just the plant combinations, there are other elements that can help a guild. Poultry could come in to the apple tree guild for planned disruptions, scratching and fertilizing the soil. Ducks might visit to work on snails and slugs. A guard dog could be involved to keep troublesome animals away. A perch would attract birds, which could help with insect control, as well as drop manure around the perch. This all benefits the system. Our job as designers is to be aware of our elements. We need to observe and research what things have a positive effect on our central element and why that is. We also need to know when two elements we want might not get along, and usually that means we’ll have to put a neutral element between them and place them adequate distance apart. This type of species configuration is a big subject in permaculture planning. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Guilds are combining species for positive interactions. - Most guilds cluster around a central element. - Each species in a guild is performing functions for the system and, in particular, the central element. - Often, plants we eat together grow well together, such as potato and peas or tomato and basil. - Animals — domesticated and wild — can also participate in guilds, benefiting the system. - 80% of plants are neutral, 15% are positive, and 5% have a negative effect on other plants. - Designers must be aware of what plants (and other elements) interact well or not well with the central piece of their guilds. - Creating positive species configurations is a huge subject in permaculture planning.

11.3.9. 3.29 – The Concept of Guilds in Nature and Design [ANMTN]

11.3.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Generally, guilds begin with a fruit tree, which is then combined with support species. Placing nitrogen-fixing legume trees between fruit trees will provide natural fertilization on the root level, as well as through chop-and-drop mulching. In the open spaces, there should be ground covers, often more nitrogen-fixing plants or herbs to distract/attract insects or forage crops for grazing animals, which provide more natural fertilization as they munch along. In essence, we are assembling support plants and other elements to continuously benefit our productive trees without us having to constantly interact with the system.

11.3.10. 3.30 – Succession and Evolution of a System [VIDEO]

11.3.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List the components of a mature plant system - Arrange a time-sequenced combination of plants to quickly create a mature system - Explain the role of support species and why they prevent weeds in young systems BRIEF OVERVIEW After lengthy observation of natural successions that usually lead to a forest, we can design to create mature systems quickly. A mature system has mixed trees, shrubs and understory plants, herbaceous (vegetables), climbing plants, and animals. With thoughtful design, all of these things can be beneficial to each other, helping us regenerate a forest eco-system, as well as productive for us. We can, as astute designers, start off with a system arranged to do this quickly, with a time-sequenced combination of plants. Fast-growing ground covers could get the soil stable while perennial covers prepare to take over. Understory trees could also grow, some which are sacrificial for mulching and fertilization, others of which become productive elements in our system. Herbaceous crop and mulch plants can go between understory trees. Then, there are long-term tree crop species and support species that will eventually be the canopy of the forest. We can even put in fruit vines to climb up supports. This way we have stacked in layers (space) and time. There are no weeds in a complete system. With our designs, we are just filling the gaps that weeds would occupy. We can position all the species so that the entire system is built to continually supply itself and occupy the niches. To do this, however, we will need a nursery. For such a forest design, we can expect to use 4000-8000 plants per hectare. A lot of these are early support species included to provide the necessary surplus in organic matter, mulch material, to win the race against weeds. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We can design our systems with a both space and time, so that they successional evolve into mature forests. - A mature system has various trees, climbing vines, understory shrubs, herbaceous ground layers, and even animals. - With a good plan, we can speed up this natural succession from a degraded landscape to a forest. - There are no weeds in a complete system, so we design to constantly fill the gaps where weeds would appear. - By filling our design with an abundance of both productive and support species, we quickly create the organic matter necessary for a forest to grow on.

11.3.11. 3.31 – The Establishment and Maintenance of Systems [VIDEO]

11.3.11.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Argue that establishing a system is much different than maintaining it - Recognize the many considerations required when establishing a system - Choose the right place to start establishing a permaculture system - Plan for how to expand from small-scale to large-scale production BRIEF OVERVIEW Establishment and maintenance are two very different things, and we must begin with establishing a system. That includes know what plant components we want to use, where to find them, how much they are, and what we are going to do with them. It requires knowing where water is coming from and how it is getting there. The plan must include access tracks, shelters, a nursery, fencing, and energy sources. There needs to be an awareness of soil rehabilitation, existing erosion issues, and necessary earthworks. Establishing well equate to lower maintenance. Zone 1 and Zone 2, because they are small and achievable, as well as affordable, are the best place to start. They also are able to supply food quickly, and they can guide us into our larger systems. We can start with a few trial trees to see what works best, planting an ecosystem (guild) around them, and learning which are best suited for easy maintenance on the broader scale. Then, from our established, stable systems, we can more cheaply and knowledgeably begin extending outward. Starting small, working on what’s self-reliant, is crucial to establishing our systems, as we are allowed to backtrack without great cost on our mistakes. As well, a small but wildly diverse system (25-75 species) prepares us for what will work best for larger scale production (3-10 species) that we might produce for export. But, we first create our own self-sufficient food system before we move into growing for the market. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Establishing and maintaining systems are two very different activities. - A good plan for establishing a system will result in less demand maintaining. Establishment should start small, Zone 1 and - Zone 2, and expand after trial runs with tree guilds. - With trial runs moving into stable ecosystems, it is possible to move into bigger systems more easily. - It is important, both for cost and effort, to begin with self-reliance, learning which plants work best, before (if ever) expanding into market production. - Zone 1 and 2 might have upwards of 75 species, whereas large-scale production shouldn’t be more than about ten species, or even as little as three.

11.3.12. 3.32 – Evolution in a Designed System [ANMTN]

11.3.12.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A design system starts with trees that are fenced off for protection, with only small animals allowed into the area, the perennial features (guild centers) aided by tree guards. There is a basic pond with the beginning of edge plants and some emerging water plants. In the middle stages, the perennial system becomes more apparent, the trees properly established and guards removed, the herbs full beneath them, though still fenced off from large animals. The pond now has plenty of vegetation, domesticate fowl, fish, and floating farm to help feed the fish. An evolved, mature system will be unfenced, with large animals managed through a dense growth of trees and support species that are providing fruit and products. The water systems diversity, too, has increased into an aquatic ecosystem of production. The whole system needs only subtle management rather than inputs, and it provides multiple, marketable yields, as well as its own fertilizers to provide stability.

11.3.13. 3.33 – General Practical Procedures in Property Design [VIDEO]

11.3.13.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Find out all of the information needed at the beginning of a design - Apply observational information to our notes on design directions - Analyze resources and factors beyond the potential site - Develop a staged approach for building an efficient, beneficial system BRIEF OVERVIEW We must gather a lot of information as we begin. We need to know about the clients, their skills, financial resources, and available time. We’ll have to find maps, aerial views and internet-sourced maps. We should acquire a history of the place: What has it been used for before? Always, perhaps most importantly, we must take a physical tour of the site, see exactly what’s there. And, we have to take notes. We have to note possible access ways, potential earthworks, and housing/building locations. We should become aware of energy systems, as well as forest, crop, and animal systems. We should study the slope, test the soil pH balance, and learn the soil type. We must notice the landscape and what it means with regards to possibilities of fire or erosion. We should be aware of what’s available locally. What particular skills are offered by the local community? What resources are available nearby? What plants are already growing well locally, in nurseries or in the people’s gardens? And, within the site, what makes it unique, as those are the features we should design around? A design is a conglomeration of landscapes, local skills, nearby resources, available finances, and owners’ abilities. Once we have amassed this information, there are stages to our approach. We trial different crops and trees to assess their performance and evolution, using extending systems as part of the design process. We can even have owners be the designers for their own systems later on. Within three to six years, things should be in order. The soil should be repaired. Buildings and animals should be worked out a functioning properly. There should be products, unique products if possible, being provided. The property and lifestyle should be a joy for the owner/operators. The whole system can provide educational resources, a nursery, and an example of a sustainable existence for the local community, a real benefit. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We must gather a lot of information, a holistic account from clients’ resources to land’s history, before we begin. - We need to take careful notes about the properties characteristics and possibilities, from building locations to soil types to fire threats. - We should become aware of local skills, resources, plants, and a site’s unique features, all of which factor into our design. - Then, we design small, trialing systems, and extend as part of the design process, including the client as an actual designer in the later stages. - At three to six years, the property should be a fully functioning example of what is possible with good, thought-out design practices.

12. Module 4: Pattern Understanding

12.1. Modules 4.1 to 4.10

12.1.1. 4.1 – Chapter 4 Course Notes

12.1.1.1. The General Core, Strategies, and Media Patterns are events of form that occur in an incalculable number of imperfect variations but generally manifest in a few core patterns. They are created by pressure between two or more media, such as wind and water or water and sand. The energy flows that move through these patterns supply us with huge design potential. Core patterns include naturally occurring shapes like waves, spirals, lobes, and branches. Most patterns are formed by growth, but netting — a special pattern — is the result of shrinkage. Continued...

12.1.2. 4.2 – Introduction to Pattern Understanding [VIDEO]

12.1.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - State that there are patterns in the universe that come in infinite variations - Repeat that edges and borders in patterns are particularly useful - Recall that integrating natural patterns will help to produce a better energy audit BRIEF OVERVIEW Now, we will move into understanding patterns, and things will come together more. You’ll examine the patterns of the universe and learn how common patterns form in infinite variations. The lessons learned from the effects around the edges and borders of patterns will become something we can put into practical design. You’ll be able to establish a better energy audit through better integration of patterns that work within our systems. This section will change the way you see the world. KEY TAKEAWAYS - By the end of this chapter, you will better understand the common patterns of the universe and their variations. - You will know how to make the most of edges and borders between patterns. - You will have learned to get more energy in a system by utilizing the patterns that will best work within it. - You will see the world through a different lens.

12.1.3. 4.3 – A General Pattern Model of Events [VIDEO]

12.1.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Define natural patterns and where they come from - List the few core patterns upon which everything is modeled - Describe these core patterns and provide examples of them in nature BRIEF OVERVIEW Patterns are an event of form, and there are an infinite number of variations and imperfections within each pattern. They are created by pressure between media, usually just two, and in them and their flows of energy, we can find a huge potential for design. Though the variations are endless, there are few core patterns upon which everything is model. Waves, for example, are a core pattern, and we can observe them as the ocean (pressure between the weather and water) or dunes (pressure between wind and sand). Other core patterns include streamlines, spirals, lobes, branches, and scatters. All of these are formed by growth and flow. Lastly, there is a special core pattern, nets, which is formed by shrinkage. We can set net patterns in series of hexagons, such as honey hives, and we can also see them the cracking, such as with dried mud. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Patterns are events of form caused by pressure between two (or more) media. - While there are many variations and imperfections of pattern, there is a finite number of core patterns. - Core patterns include waves, streamlines, cloud forms, spirals, lobes, branches, and nets. - Most patterns are formed by growth and flow, except nets, which are formed by shrinkage.

12.1.4. 4.4 – Matrices and the Strategies of Complexing Components [VIDEO]

12.1.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize how certain patterns might produce good results in a design - Apply design patterning to the natural patterns in a system - Generate higher yields by recognizing and utilizing sets of patterns BRIEF OVERVIEW We are aiming to observe and replicate patterns, compacting them to fit into our systems while keeping them complex enough to get the benefits of natural flow of life. For example, the shape of an apple core, the dispersal of space at two ends connected by a central trunk, can also be seen in huge patterns like bird migrations and river systems. We have to be aware of how such a pattern might play well in a designed system. In our designs, our strategy is to find the productive, natural patterns of life and stack them into tessellating pieces to make the most of existing landscapes and natural elements. Creating chains of patterns, stacking the complex compactions within our human-imposed grid of straight-edged land boundaries, helps initiate more niches and benefits from more edge events. We want to see the natural patterns in the landscape and work with it rather than force it into unnatural forms. Realizing these patterns, recognizing them, and utilizing the events that they cause can help us gain higher yields with lower inputs. Essentially, they work on the interplay, the expansion and contraction of land and water, produce by the pressure of these opposing but productively cooperative forces. With them, and other natural phenomenon, we provided an infinite set of patterns to observe. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Natural patterns represent flows of life, which we can compact and stack into our systems. - We must observe and be aware of these patterns in order to utilize them for efficient, low input designs. - Our design strategy is to find the existing patterns, stack them, and tessellate them into the landscape. - Chains of patterns creates more opportunity for productive edge events and specific life niches. - Through adopting natural patterns, we can create higher yields with lower inputs. Patterns are formed by the expansion and contraction of edges caused by the pressure between land and water. - There are an infinite set of patterns we can endlessly observe.

12.1.5. 4.5 – General Core Model [ANMTN]

12.1.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The general core model is an expression of pressure between two media. If we were to look at the tree as an example, we can find the origin point where the seed germinates. From there, we have two distinct zones, one being the above ground branching area and the other being the underground root structure. From this event, we can find many, many patterns of form, including fractals, spirals, closed, involute, open, crown, and so on. The general core model is a combination of pattern forms in one event.

12.1.6. 4.6 – General Core Model [PDF]

12.1.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Every natural pattern form in the known universe can be found within the general core model. Here are several of these pattern examples. These patterns emerge from taking various cross sections, plans, longitudinal sections, streamline paths and projections. From a phase of growth to a decay and dissolution morphing into like and unlike forms of three dimensional pattern expressing energy in form through the extension of entropy with energy capture.

12.1.7. 4.7 – Pattern Matrix of Tesselated Patterns [PDF]

12.1.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Our pattern models tesselate to create whole surfaces, whole landscapes but our designs are made up of such models. And therefore, must be able to tesselate. Even totally irregular models can be made to tessellate working with expansion and contraction. The designs we create in two dimensions do become reality on the ground in three dimensional flow.

12.1.8. 4.8 – Pattern Matrix of Tesselated Patterns [ANMTN]

12.1.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A pattern of tessellated forms is loosely like a grid of squares that morph into hexagons and intersecting waves that fit together to ultimately reveal the natural forms that occur and interact across a whole landscape.

12.1.9. 4.9 – Matricies and Tessalations [PDF]

12.1.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Regular and irregular general core models will link together and form closed surfaces with three dimensional spheres (like tennis balls) and chains (like those of a skeleton).

12.1.10. 4.10 – Patterns in Deserts [PDF]

12.1.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Patterns formed from pressure between wind, sand and occasional heavy rains creates a repetitive patterning with lunulate lagoons in crescent shapes both large and small.

12.2. Modules 4.11 to 4.20

12.2.1. 4.11 – Patterns in Deserts [ANMTN]

12.2.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The patterns of deserts are repetitive as a result of the recurring pressure between two media: wind and sand. The other large forming event in deserts is that of the rare but usually very heavy rains that form landscape shaping floods.

12.2.2. 4.12 – Properties of Media [VIDEO]

12.2.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Differentiate the properties of materials on a site - Illustrate the importance of boundaries as advantageous spaces - Summarize the role of edge events in sustainable output BRIEF OVERVIEW It’s important that we understand the materials we are dealing with: air, water, stone, earth, wind, water flows, etc. We need recognize their different properties through different conditions and create a synthesized system of these media interacting. In this way, permaculture takes advantage of the boundaries between media, even within media, and is the practice of making these connections. There are opportunities in boundaries. It’s not dissimilar to the borders between countries, where things like trade and translation operate at a higher level. In the same sense, of course, there are mobile elements functioning between the boundaries: a flock of birds, a shoal of fish, a wafting cloud of dust. Our goal is to take advantage of these events within our designs. The edge events continually flowing around us shape our reality. Permaculture systems facilitate the living translations of edge events. They encourage the complexity of systems mixing and meeting for even richer, more complex systems. In this way, we design with the same practical mindset of traditional people, who always settled at edges — bends in a river, cliffs of a mountain — in order to make the most of managing the events there. Only edges in natural systems — each with a different ecological community to harvest — can create a sustainable output. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We need to study and understand the media we are dealing with, such as air, water and earth. - Learning to recognize the media’s different characteristics in different conditions is imperative. - Permaculture design is the practice of connecting the media in a meaningful way. - The boundaries between media is where we find our greatest opportunities for productivity. - With these edges, we can take advantage of more complex ecological communities from which to harvest. - Only along edges of natural systems can we create a sustainable output.

12.2.3. 4.13 – Boundary Conditions [VIDEO]

12.2.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Identify boundaries in nature and society - Contrast the two types of boundaries - Discover the role that edges play in productive patterns - Give an example of an ecotone creating a richer environment BRIEF OVERVIEW Boundaries are everywhere. They occur between solids and liquids, liquids and gasses, gasses and solids. They can be where currents move or elements get hot. Even society is constructed of boundaries: gender, religion, subcultures. As permaculturalists, we need to be skilled at recognizing boundary conditions, these points where friction creates a huge potential for change. There are two types of boundaries, those where particles flow along the boundaries and those where particle flow across them. When particles flow along, it’s a sheer event, but in the other case, there is local friction, creating a spinning effect caused by more energy than can be harmonic. The overcharged event spins briefly into chaos because different media must slow down when mixed, and this creates a richer system. If we consider a grassland and forest, and the boundary — ecotone — that occurs between them, we can see that there is a much richer system at the boundary. There are edge species that specialize in the ecotone environment, but in that same location, there are also visitors from both the forest and the grassland. Rich soils will have been dropped by wind resistance in the transition from open prairie to forest. This ecotone edge is a diffusion zone for the flowing media of life. Edges define patterns, but they are also the fuzzy zone between two different media. Traditional people, wisely, were managers of the edge, as it increased design efficiency, accumulating resources from the micro to macro levels. We have to be adept a recognizing these same useful conditions. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Boundaries are everywhere, from states of matter to societal structures. - We must recognize boundary conditions as they provide a huge opportunity for potential change. - There are two types of boundaries: with particles moving along the boundary or with particles moving across the boundary. - The ecotone — area of transitions from one media to the next — is rich with resources and species. - Edges are accumulators, where materials drop or gather, at both the micro and macro level.

12.2.4. 4.14 – Edges and Surfaces [ANMTN]

12.2.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Edges and surfaces are everywhere, and where they are there is an engagement of media. Different medias — air, earth, water, flow, heat — interact around edges. This interaction forms natural elements of effect, with borders that are rich environments: grass to water, soil to subsoil, warm to cool, stream to bank, water to mud and many, many more within any one environment.

12.2.5. 4.15 – Edges and Surfaces [PDF]

12.2.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Exploring all the edges; from the lowest to the highest, the widest to the shortest, the youngest to the eldest, the fastest to the slowest, the wettest to the driest. It is a skill that we have to develop and fully explore all the potentials of design for sustainable productivity.

12.2.6. 4.16 – The Harmonics and Geometries of Boundary [VIDEO]

12.2.6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Express how extending edge creates system enhancement - Define boundaries and why they produce advantageous opportunities - Sketch a picture that shows maximizing the edge effect with a pond - Explain how keyhole beds create more planting space than rows BRIEF OVERVIEW In permaculture, we are working to harmonize and enhance natural shapes to our benefit. We increase edge to greater effect. This is because we increase our surface area through extending edge, which creates more boundary interaction. Through the interactions, we can orchestrate designed disturbances and energy captures to enhance our systems. For example, consider a four-hectare property covered in pine trees, which make for an acidic soil and mulch. If we make a one-hectare pond on the property, we can create the perfect conditions for planting blueberries. If we take that same pond, same size, and give it a crenellating edge, then we have much more growing space for the blueberries, as well as more pond edge for fish. More edge increases component potential. Keyhole beds work much the same. They create naturally lobular patterns, perfect for small garden designs. In the typical straight row patterns, even when utilizing the space-saving double-reach rows, about 50% of the area is allocated to path. By using keyhole, beds we are able to reduce those paths to only 30% of the space. In this type of small garden design, we can be more involved and maximize our patterns, and we can layer in designed diversity and stability. Boundaries equate to two things that differ. Between them, we get trades and transactions. In order for those trades and transactions to occur, we often use translators (just like at national borders), species that can negotiate using both media. Herein lies great opportunity. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Our work is to harmonize and enhance natural forms so that they work to our benefit. - We do this by extending edges, increasing surface area, and creating boundary interactions. - In smaller designs, we can maximize pattern, stacking in more diversity and stability. - Boundaries equate to different things that trade and transfer materials, require translator species and conditions, and thus create active opportunity for life.

12.2.7. 4.17 – Keyhole and Lobulate Patterns [PDF]

12.2.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The ‘keyhole’ and ‘lobular' patterns give you a variation of aspect, wind, shade, shelter and sun while extending the edge around an area, which increases the potential for diversity. In the inner zone in needs to be appropriate to the scale of use, usually related to the human reach.

12.2.8. 4.18 – The Harmonics and Geometries of Boundary [ANMTN]

12.2.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW For the home garden, keyhole patterns offer the best ratio of footpath to growing space, equating to about 30% pathways. In contrast, a parallel double-reach system uses about 50% of the space for footpaths. These lobular key designs are also a natural occurrence, and they can be very useful when replicated for forest clearing or pond edges, where they present opportunities for varied ecologies and growth niches.

12.2.9. 4.19 – Crenellated Pond Edge [PDF]

12.2.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The crenellated pond edge: By extending the edge around the area the edge zone itself without increasing the area it encloses and the edge zone is usually the most productive zone so by careful design, potential productivity increases. Focus on the edge is the most productive thing we can do and it involves both edge production and edge stability.

12.2.10. 4.20 – Crenellated Pond Edge [ANMTN]

12.2.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW If within a four-hectare field of pine trees we put a one-hectare pond, then we can use pattern and smart design to expand our potential output. Firstly, the pond would be used to create a yield of fish, and we could choose to grow blueberries along its edge, as blueberries would enjoy the acidic soil produced by pine mulch and the water’s edge. Then, if we were to make a pond with a crenellated edge rather a circular one, we could double that perimeter, effectively doubling our planting area for blueberries, as well as creating more feeding grounds for fish, which are edge feeders. In this way, our designs with attention to edge make a massive difference.

12.3. Modules 4.21 to 4.30

12.3.1. 4.21 – Fences [AMNTN]

12.3.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Edge effects also occur at points of infrastructure: power lines, fences, posts. These inevitably produce bird perches, which in turn produces concentrated areas of bird manure. There is also potential for something like a fence to capture mulching debris as the wind moves it across the landscapes. In combination with the manure and the mulch, it is entirely possible that a small forest system begins that could ultimately replace the fence.

12.3.2. 4.22 – Compatible and Incompatible Borders and Components [VIDEO]

12.3.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Categorize the three effects that element interactions produce - Differentiate between harmful, neutral, and positive elements - Contrast mosaic polycultures with simplified monocultures - Relate how permaculture designs intentionally harmonize with nature BRIEF OVERVIEW When we have one element and another interacting, there are three possible effects: decrease, benefit, unaffected. The two elements can help each other. Or, one might help the other, while the other doesn’t help the one. Or, vice versa. Or, they could be complete incompatible. Our job is figuring out how to put elements together for better yield, stability, and growth. Very few elements are actually negative, or allelopathic, causing a harmful effect (only about 5%). About ten to fifteen percent are actually beneficial, and the remaining 80-plus percent are fairly neutral. We do not want to create systems that attack, negatively, other systems, such as with monocultures. Rather, compatibility gives us extra yield and increased stability. This happens through good edge assemblies, in which elements fit well together. Having a variety of crops is proven as more productive, but large mass farmers now find it difficult. They have simplified their systems to make calculating inputs and outputs easier but, in turn, have decreased stability. Instead, making a mosaic landscape, starting small with trials and extending is the opposite of monoculture. It creates a productive and stable system. We are creating designs that intentionally harmonize with nature. Rather than attempting to be impenetrable, our boundaries are meant to act as filters, diffusing and accumulating elements over time, not creating the intense pressure of rigid borders but encouraging productive interaction. Our designs combine trees and plants, cultivation and nature, for the good of all, which helps us, too, become a positive element in the system. KEY TAKEAWAYS - In element interaction, there is the potential for negative, positive, and neutral relationships. - We try to put elements together in positive ways to increase yield, stability, and growth. - Most plants are neutral, about 10-15% beneficial, and a very small 5% problematic for others. - We don’t want to create systems, like monocultures, that attack other systems. This is unstable. - A variety of crops on a mosaic landscape creates a more stable, more accumulative, more productive environment. - By designing this way, we have the potential of becoming the most positive element in the system.

12.3.3. 4.23 – Edge Cropping [ANMTN]

12.3.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW In two equally sized fields planted with equal spacing, one with straight rows will have far less yield than with curved rows that conform to the landscape. Also, thoughtfully varied diversity amongst these rows increases the yield yet again, by having the different crops interact as valuable companions for one another. Through thoughtful design, we increase yield.

12.3.4. 4.24 – The Timing and Shaping of Events [VIDEO]

12.3.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Devise a strategy for shaping events in space and time - Predict pulses of action and inaction within systems - Give an example of how time can predictably affect system output BRIEF OVERVIEW We need more than components and borders; we need a strategy for how these things go together, how they are shaped both in space and time. It’s one thing to observe but quite another to understand how events are shaped. The shaping of bodies is encoded in DNA and natural patterns, so there is a limit to both growth (rates) and size. Events happen in pulses, very specific variations of timing in which we can view storms or sets of waves or the blood flowing through our bodies. All things are acting on general timed schedules, so we can design in relation to these pulses of action or inaction. When we understand why there are changes at certain times, we open the door to being able to utilize them. For example, if we look at weather systems, we can see seasonal cycles, annual cycles, and even large ten-year cycles that cause certain events. With the right observation, we might recognize years that’ll provide extra pears or cherries or whichever crops. There are limits to the exactness, to the size and shaping of these events, but from the correct perspective, we can begin to understand them. Then, when we understand the pattern of timing, it becomes a valuable part of our system design. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Timing and shaping are a strategy, a way to express beyond observation and into understanding. - The shaping of bodies is encoded in DNA and, thus, there are growth and size limits to these patterns. - Events occur in variations of timing, pulses, that operate on loose but predictable schedules. - With an understanding of timing and shaping, we can have them as part of our design strategy.

12.3.5. 4.25 – Spirals [VIDEO]

12.3.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List different points in nature where spiral patterns occur - Recall human-made things that also use spiral patterns BRIEF OVERVIEW Spirals are a very common pattern in nature, and this isn’t a great surprise. We are on a planet moving through space as it spins, a moon spinning about us, both the moon and earth spinning around the sun, all of it spinning us into spirals. Lots and lots of nature uses spiral patterning. Our weather systems themselves move in spirals, both internally and around the poles. There are plants, the spiraling patterns of flower petals or tendrils. There are shells, the flows of streamlines, and wind movements. The commonest spiral is the growth spiral, which operates under the Fibonacci summation series: 1+1+2+3+5+8+13…There are no perfect representations of spirals in nature but rather slight variations over time. Nature is constantly compacting this pattern and extending its edge. With the appropriate placement, we can utilize patterns like this in our design. Many human-made things already do: screws, propellers, anchors, corkscrews…It can be very useful and strong when we have a reason behind utilizing it. That’s what we need in our designs. KEY TAKEAWAYS - The spiral is a very common pattern in nature. - Even our planet — and thus our weather systems — operates in a series of spinning spirals. - The most common spiral is the growth spiral, which grows in accordance with the Fibonacci series. - Many natural things use spirals: flowers, shells, streamlines, storms. - Many human-made things use spirals: screws, propellers, anchors, corkscrews. - With appropriate placement, this strong pattern can be very useful in our designs.

12.3.6. 4.26 – Flow over Landscapes and Objects [VIDEO]

12.3.6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize instances of flow using the Overbeck jet model - Explain how velocity can change the way energy flows - Generalize how wind works over a tree line BRIEF OVERVIEW Flow doesn’t just pertain to water, but it includes gases and airstreams as well. The Overbeck Jet model appears like a mushroom with spiraled flows connected through the middle, spinning inwards in opposite directions (the classic explosion cloud). It occurs often in nature: in the atmosphere, with gaseous explosions; in water, such as when rivers empty into the sea; and even in solid forms, like mushrooms. Velocity is a key factor in how water flows occur. With the slowest velocity, things can be rather placid. As the velocity speeds up and encounters an obstructive object, the energy might become captive, spiral inwards behind the object. A little bit faster and suddenly, the water flows will turn outwards, spiraling outwards four or five times (a Von Karman trail) before returned to a constant forward flow. This is predictable and even measurable. However, if the velocity is much, the result is chaos: rapids. Wind works with a similar recurring spiraling of energy. As it clears a tree line (or other impeding object), the wind spirals back downwards and spins four or five times before settling make into a constant forward flow. (It also twists roughly fifteen degrees due to the Coriolis effect (the earth’s influence on a body in motion.) We can see this very event in how weather events occur (or don’t) around hilltops. Again, we can observe these flow patterns when we know what to look for (and simply to look for them). Then, we can work to use them to our advantage. We can place objects within our designs in order to control flows for beneficial patterns. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Flow does not just occur in water, but also in gases. - Velocity determines a lot regarding the patterns of flow. - The Overbeck Jet Model is an explosive flow occurrence that is mushroom-shaped, with the outer ends spiraling back inwards into itself. - The Von Karman Trail is a quick flow pattern in which flows spiral outwards in a repeated sequence of four or five occurrences. - The Ekman Spiral Overturn is an another fast flow pattern caused when wind goes over an object then spirals four or five times. - We can observe different flow patterns and use them in our designs to create harmonic patterns that we can benefit from.

12.3.7. 4.27 – The Von Karman Trail [ANMTN]

12.3.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW When we look at the water flow around an object in the water, we can see regular patterning. At its slowest, the water simply flows passed. As the speed increases, two stationary eddies spinning inward in opposite directions will form, one on each side of the object. At the next level of increased speed, we see the Von Karman trail in which the water flow will spiral outwards four or five times, with such precision that it occurs with the measurement of 1x width to 3.6x length between the spiraling eddies. This effect happens with wind, water, and clouds.

12.3.8. 4.28 – Different Types of Trails and Spirals [ANMTN]

12.3.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Fixed objects, like hills, islands, and windbreak tree lines, have an effect on wind, creating a pattern called Ekman spirals.

12.3.9. 4.29 – Media in Flow [ANMTN]

12.3.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW With different wind and current velocities, we see different but regular patterns. It begins with a streamlined flow. At the next level of speed, we see captive vortices, eddying in behind an object that impedes the flow. Beyond that, there is a vortex shedding, a release of energy, that forms patterns like the Von Karman Trail and Ekman Spirals. Lastly, if the velocity becomes too great, the flow becomes turbulent and compressed — chaotic.

12.3.10. 4.30 – Open Flow and Flow Pattern [VIDEO]

12.3.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Describe how flow dynamics are changed by shape - Give several examples of natural occurrences where shape displaces flow - Discuss how designers can utilize pattern and shape to harmonize with nature BRIEF OVERVIEW Forms of life in flow dynamics adjust their shapes to utilize it. We can see this in how fish in flowing streams are able to sit relatively motionless or the way large predator fish seem to avoid the tide while hunting. We can also see it in things we make, such as cars or airplane wings, where aerodynamics is now an integral part of design. The right shapes can help us harvest or displace energy flows. For example, the pattern in which snails lay eggs in the water creates a low flow directly over them, which creates a high pressure pattern to keep them attached to the surface. A starfish similar uses its shape to invite flows beneath it but towards its mouth for feeding. In these ways, we can see that natural systems design themselves to create advantages in flow. We want to take parallel advantage of shape, creating less work but more harvest. Making wind breaks the shape of airplane wings is a good example. For every foot we go up, we should go three feet in width, which will help the wind lift smoothly over an area. The more we can understand things like this, the more we can harmonize with nature and the more efficient our systems will become. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Forms of life adjust their shapes to take advantage of energy flows and make life easier. - Human designs, such as with cars and jets, have done the same thing to increase efficiency. - There are many examples — snails, starfish, etc — of nature utilizing shape to harvest or displace flows. - The more we can utilize shape to harmonize with flows, the more efficient our system designs will be.

12.4. Modules 4.31 to 4.40

12.4.1. 4.31 – Toroidal Phenomena [VIDEO]

12.4.1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Define what the toroidal phenomenon is - Locate instances in nature in which the phenomenon occurs - Explain the flow of energy in trees and the earth’s magnetic field BRIEF OVERVIEW The Torodial phenomenon takes us back to the mushroom pattern, the Overbeck Jet Model (4.10: Flow Over Landscapes and Objects), but in three-dimensional form. This is another pattern that recurs throughout our natural systems. The great example of the shape is found in trees, which repeat it both above (in the branches) and below (in the roots) the earth’s surface, in essence the origin of the explosion. Within this space, all sorts of nature efficiency occur, including the spiraling of nutrients up the tree, as well as the harvesting and dropping of nutrients from the crown to the outer edges of the roots. There are many pulses of energy that occur within the shape. Earth’s electromagnetic field operates much the same way as the tree. Energies are contracted into the south pole and funneled up through the earth’s core until the expand again out of the north pole. In other words, seeing as the core of the planet is built around this form, a pattern repeated throughout nature, it is yet another shape we should pay attention to in design. KEY TAKEAWAYS - The Torodial Phenomena are the form of explosion in three dimensions, the classic mushroom shape. - Trees have energy flows based on this phenomenon, creating efficient nutrient cycles. - The electromagnetic field of earth uses this form for contracting and expanding energy into the earth’s core from the south and out of it through the north. - Once again, the point is that we can observe and utilize this type of energy flow within our designs.

12.4.2. 4.32 – Dimensions and Potential Generators [VIDEO]

12.4.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Identify what generates patterns and what causes these generators - Categorize different origins of natural patterns BRIEF OVERVIEW What generates patterns are the forces and pressures, and what causes these forces are varied. Gravity causes water flow patterns, the branch patterns of streams moving downhill into large branches that move to main rivers that eventually have curving effects as gravity’s effect lessens. Wind over sands grows increasingly from ripples to dunes to dune fields to ergs. Wind causes water waves. Life is also a shaping force. Again, we can look at the pattern that trees form, mimicking the two-dimensional river systems in three-dimensional form. There are also chemical reactions, shrinking from dehydration and expanding from saturation, or freezing and thawing, that cause familiar patterns. Patterns resist simplicity as the complex result of these forces, the only perfect pattern being that of infinite imperfection. As designers, we have to be open to the observational process of learning from these patterns and willing participants in dynamically adjusting to them. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Forces and pressures generate patterns. These forces can be things like gravity, wind, or even growth through living (life). - Pattern perfection is only found in its infinite imperfection. - We must be open to the vast arrays of patterns and ready to adjust our systems to utilize them.

12.4.3. 4.33 – Closed Spherical Models: Accretion and Expulsion [VIDEO]

12.4.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Discover that spheres have the least surface area for any given volume - Express how spheres form and move in space BRIEF OVERVIEW We have closed spherical models everywhere in the known universe. From the tiny droplet of water than gets suspended momentarily between up and down, that instant of gravity free, to the massive stars minimizing their enormous volume, spheres are there. They represent the least surface area possible for any given volume. In space, any area large enough (200 miles/320 kilometers across) will form a sphere. These are never quite perfect, just as the planet isn’t. Nevertheless, like earth, they all rotate, and they all have two poles. The distance between these poles is always slightly shorter than the equivalent diameter along the equator of the object. Again, like a tree, material gathers at the crown of these spheres, and energy flows through the core of them, ejecting out of the poles. Here we are looking at edge to volume to mass events, and this notion — we will learn — is very relevant to designing patterns. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Closed spherical models are everywhere in the universe. - From small suspended droplets of water to gigantic stars, we can find spheres. - A sphere represents the smallest possible surface area in which any volume can fit. - Looking at this edge to volume to mass ratio is truly relevant to design patterning.

12.4.4. 4.34 – Branching and its Effects: Conduits [VIDEO]

12.4.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Define fractal patterns - Give several examples of branching patterns in nature - Recognize the sizes of branches in a fractal pattern - Explain how fractal patterns might be used in permaculture design BRIEF OVERVIEW Branching patterns, as we’ve seen with trees and rivers, are also called fractal patterns. This term moves us towards the shattered appearance that occurs in branching, and this can be understood through fractal geometry. The patterns are effected by flow and growth, and there are limits to how small and big the pieces can get. There are many, many examples of branching patterns in nature. Beyond tree branches and tributary rivers, we can see fractals in forked lightning, in our lungs and kidneys, and reflectively (of the branches) in the roots of trees. In these fractal patterns, each breakdown increases in the number of branches as it decreases the size of the branches, and this is functional. The trunk (and thicker part) is inefficient for diffusion but great for concentrated energy flow, while the smaller but more plentiful branches are perfect for both releasing and gathering but slow down the flow of energy. We can see how this would apply to our systems by considering the pathways. A driveway would act somewhat like a trunk, whereas the footpaths through the garden would branch and shrink into each bed or keyhole, where plants need individual attention. The reverse happens as we harvest, pulling from the smaller branches and concentrating into the larger ones. This is how we adjust patterns to fit our needs so that we have a positive interaction with our design. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Branching, or fractal, patterns are affected by flow and growth, thus have limits to their size. - Natural examples of fractals include tree branches and roots, river tributaries (and deltas), forked lightning, as well as our lungs and kidneys. - The systems have logical design for energy flows, dispersion and collection. - The pathways of a good design will have energy flows like the branching patterns we see in nature.

12.4.5. 4.35 – Orders of Magnitude in Branches [VIDEO]

12.4.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Name the branching configurations of water systems - Analyze the different branches of water systems - Differentiate between streams formed by different geological events BRIEF OVERVIEW Streams describe preceding geological events. Sometimes they can feed in an asymmetrical pattern, the result of block faulting. They can be in trellis patterns when in folding landscapes or grid patterns in landscapes with rock jointing. The dendritic pattern (the tree shape), however, is not geological. We have to want to learn and understand these types of patterns. We need see volume and the size of the branches. We should be able to count the number of branches in each order and to estimate the total length of its channels. We must recognize the frequency of meander and behavior of flow. The size, age, and fall over branching river systems is all relevant. Understanding these things allows us to utilize them in design. Older river and streams have slower flows and more meandering, dropping deposits of silt. High, young streams are oxygenated and fast flowing. Each branch and change in flow results in different species and material, so these patterns alter life assemblies and their functions. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Streams describe preceding geological events. - Block faulted landscapes result in asymmetrical streams, folding landscapes create trellis patterns, and rock jointing forms grids. - The dendritic (tree) pattern is not geological. - Understanding these patterns and the characteristics of streams — volume, size, numbers, length, flow, etc. — helps us with design choices. - Types of branches and flow changes species and material of the stream; pattern changes the life assemblies.

12.4.6. 4.36 – Stream Patterns [ANMTN]

12.4.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Many types of river patterns are the result of geological formations. Block faulting will create asymmetrical patterns, whereas folding landscapes creates a trellised river formation and rock jointing creates a grid pattern. However, the classic, tree-like dendritic pattern is not dictated by geology. The orders of size of the branches of a rivers system are always comparable within the dendritic pattern.

12.4.7. 4.37 – Orders and Dimensions [VIDEO]

12.4.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain how dimension helps us to get patterns in order - Discover different size orders in nature and human settlements - Describe how size changes behavior and creates instability in patterns BRIEF OVERVIEW Dimension allows us to get the pattern in order. A good example for the gradation of size is the river system. The largest part is estuary (mouth), formed by the rivers, formed by the streams, formed by the creeks, formed by the runoff, formed by the rills. With each size larger, the volume increases and the velocity decreases. With each changing branch, pressure changes, gases change, life forms change, and all that change results in functional change. There are size orders in everything. Rivers, as well as well as mountains, as well as seas, all have specific size orders that work differently for different life forms and functions. Human settlements are arranged by size orders, with urban moving to more numerous but less densely populated suburbs to villages to rural homes. Animal species have size orders that change their functions; planets and stars have orders of size that result in different behaviors. Size changes behavior and function, but each part needs the others. If things are too small or too large, it creates instability, such as with modern cities and agriculture fields, so we have to learn to see the functions of each different part of the system. Then, when we create hierarchies in our designs, we can construct them with appropriate order. The function of each part is valuable in a natural system, so it is valuable in our designs. Each thing should relate to the other in its order and have a reciprocal relationship. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Dimension allows us to get the pattern in order. - River systems show us gradations in size: estuary to river to streams to creeks to runoffs to rills. - The changes in size creates different volume, speed, pressure, life forms, and functions. - Size orders are in everything: rivers, mountains, seas, settlements, species, planets, stars… - A change in size results in a change in behavior and function. - Each part in an order needs the other parts and has an important role to play for those parts.

12.4.8. 4.38 – Dendritic Branching [ANMTN]

12.4.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The pattern of trees and rivers are fixed in many ways. The proportions of the branches are pulses in growth, with the largest always being the least in number and the smallest always having the most. The largest branches are slowed by inertia, the smallest by viscosity. The largest have less edge, more volume, and less speed, while the smallest are the contrary. The orders of size between smallest and largest in the branches is always limited to being between five and nine.

12.4.9. 4.39 – Classification of Events [VIDEO]

12.4.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Events happen in nature, and they relate to pattern. There are explosions that create disintegration, erosion, or impact. There is growth that causes integration, construction, and translates materials. There are ideas that occur to us. Staged events also occur. Seeds are ready to germinate. Ideas are ready to be explored. Growth becomes decay and disintegration, then becomes growth again. Each event is replaced by the next event. There are also dimensions. We could have singular, curved linear event. We could have events that occur as a result of tessellated, dendritic patterning, or events stacking. They can be solid dimensions, like a tree, or moving events. In these dimensions, a time component is included. Lastly, events happen in locations. Storms might occur over the sea, weather events over a landscape. Media might penetrate through surfaces. Ideas occur in places. Ultimately, these classifications assemble to help us understand pattern as an event. This helps us see the world with less emotion and to recognize events and patterns as design tools. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Events occur in nature and relate to pattern. - There are also staged events, which we premeditate. - Time dimension is also way of view events. - And, all events take place in a location. - Assembling these classifications helps us to understand pattern as an event. - Recognizing these classified pattern removes emotion and helps us use them as design tools.

12.4.10. 4.40 – Time and Relativity in the Model [VIDEO]

12.4.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Formulate an understanding of time-stacking in a garden - Recognize how we integrate evolutionary processes into designs BRIEF OVERVIEW How you do something is only one dimension. We time pattern relationships as well. Non-living animals evolve into living elements in sequence. For example, the seed of a tree is its origin in relation to that point in time. It grows roots and leaves and continues to evolve. Time events become encapsulated in its rings. We integrate these evolutionary processes into our designs. We influence them by design, favoring our position and desired outcomes. We put out new shoots and new roots overtime. Trees, rivers, and glaciers all originated at a central stem, its past and present resulting from that origin. Most garden vegetable patches are a six-month event. At any point, we can look forwards or backwards in time and know the stage of the garden. In this way, we can decide which seeds to transplant to speed up and stack time events, facilitating the inevitable evolution. This makes our work relevant and our time well spent. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We time pattern relationships in our design, integrating evolutionary processes. - We influence — speed up and stack — evolutionary process to work in our favor. - At any point, we can look at the garden and know where it has been and its stages going forward, using that to our advantage. - In this way, the work we do is relevant and the time to do it is well spent.

12.5. Modules 4.41 to 4.50

12.5.1. 4.41 – The World we Live in as a Tessellation of Events [VIDEO]

12.5.1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Interpret how events shape the landscape and ecology - Justify the patterns we use in permaculture design BRIEF OVERVIEW Events are happening where we are, and they have happened before and will happen again. They shape the local landscape and ecology, from the greater forms we see to the creative life networks. Events are expressed through geology, erosion, forests, wildlife, and weather. All of these things are affected by pulsing phenomenon in time. Ecology adjusts to long-term time cycles, and this creates opportunities for new life. This creative force of nature is the only force on the planet we can rely on, so we have to preserve it. We can link these cycles, time-event phenomenon, to the patterns that exist and the ones we design. The patterns we use must be for function. They help to encourage flows. They grow into forms. They provide a flux of information. We can save large amounts of energy with good design patterns, and they can be both functional and, consequently, aesthetic. Pattern is the framework for all of our designs, and designs are the subject of permaculture. We can’t exist separate from it, and we are central to the pattern events we experience. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Events are happening around us now and have happened before and will happen in the future. - These phenomena shape the greater landscape we live in and the creative life that exists there. - Long-term cycle events cause ecology to adjust and open opportunity for life events. - Nature’s creative force is the only force we can be sure of. - We use pattern for function over aesthetics, though good function creates aesthetic outcomes. - Pattern is the framework for our designs, and designs are the subject of permaculture. - We can’t exist away from pattern, and we are central to the pattern events that occur around us.

12.5.2. 4.42 – Introduction to Pattern Applications [VIDEO]

12.5.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Separate the two parts to designing with pattern - Give examples of traditional cultures that harmonized with their landscapes - Appraise how traditional cultures managed land sustainably BRIEF OVERVIEW There are two parts to pattern: application and perception. We must refine our skills to perceive patterns and apply them in ways that work to our advantage. The modern landscape is full of straight lines produced by surveying and machinery, but this is not in harmony with nature. We, in permaculture, are harmonizing with nature. Traditional cultures had success managing land. There were harmonious methods like the Ancient Hawaiian Ahupua’s system, Mexican Chiampas, and the Date Palm Oasis Settlements. The cultures first created stability and, from it, gained production. They realized that there was no point to having short-term production — it was not sustainable — without stability. Most of this management began with defining the watershed from up high all the way through to the lower slopes and into the sea. On mountains, they developed forests along ridge lines and steep slopes, protecting the landscape from erosion and creating a trickle down nutrient system. Water could be stored at the mid-slope and diverted to areas of production further down. These stable systems were achieved with a respect and understanding of pattern. Long-term perennial systems, stable and productive systems, were passed on from generation to generation so that the environment constantly improved and was not destroyed. Now, we must begin reimagining our systems to work more this way. KEY TAKEAWAYS - There are two parts to pattern: application and perception (observation). - Our goal is to be able to use our perceptions and apply them to advantageous pattern design. - Many traditional cultures design with pattern, first creating stability and then long-term productivity. - Those old models tended to define watershed, from high to low, and utilize it with primarily perennial forest systems. - Those systems worked in harmony with nature, respecting and understanding how to use pattern. - Long-term stability was then passed and improved from generation to generation for a sustainable existence. - It’s time for us to begin thinking and designing our settlements this way.

12.5.3. 4.43 – The Tribal uses of Patterning [VIDEO]

12.5.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List different ways that tribal people use patterning culturally - Interpret some of the patterning that tribal people use - Discover methods tribal civilizations have for utilizing nature’s patterns BRIEF OVERVIEW Dress, artwork, decorations, songs, dances, stories—tribal people used patterns of all sorts to transfer complex information. Pattern is a recording systems. It used to be that art was the science of survival and science the art of survival, with the two forming one mode of thought. However, we devised numbers and symbols then divided art and science, eventually further isolating arts into mediums and sciences into subjects. In the patterns of before, there was hidden knowledge about many things: navigation, medicine, food gathering, weather and life lessons. Classic nursery rhymes like Jack and Jill were simple games for children but, as adults, they would provide valuable survival information. (In this case, the second verse of Jack and Jill teaches us to treat headaches with vinegar and brown paper.) Mnemonic devices have for centuries helped us remember things. For example, the quick rhyme Five to eight, oh, I must be late is an easy, almost unforgettable way to remember a mile is 5280 feet. Similarly, tribal civilizations used patterning to help with all sorts of things. The Mari of New Zealand would use patterned tattoos in coordination with songs to ingrain lessons. Polynesians were able to navigate the seas to small islands in the middle of the Pacific through songs, star sets, and current patterns. Australian aboriginals used songs as maps across desert landscapes. The patterns equated to knowledge and survival. We can lose books and technology, but the patterns become something within us. And, it’s important to remember that time in patterns is not linear but actually interconnects between events. The Anasazi of North America build shadow structures that illustrated the 18.6-year moon cycle precisely. Of course, the cycle of the sun and moon dictates the timing of planting and ceremonies, as well as a cycle of drought and flood. The modern world has only just realized this. Former civilizations were more in-tuned with the universe, and it’s important that we honor, realize and continue this. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Tribal societies used patterning in dress, artwork, decorations, songs, dances, stories and so on. - Patterning was a way of transferring and remembering complex information. - For tribes, hidden knowledge about medicine, food, navigation, climate, and all sorts are in patterns. - Nursery rhymes performed a similar service, teaching us how to make medicine or using mnemonics to remember difficult things. - Past tribal systems were more in-tuned with nature and patterns, and it’s important to honor and continue that.

12.5.4. 4.44 – The Mnemonics of Meaning [VIDEO]

12.5.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain how mnemonics are used to teach future generations about life - Discuss the need to apply meaningful information to our relationship with nature BRIEF OVERVIEW Mnemonics has been used to assist memory. We observe and event then contemplate it. From this we are led to ethical ways of looking at something, and from the ethics, we develop a philosophy. Finally, the philosophy becomes our way of living. Traditional cultures used mnemonic patterns like chants to express these codes of living, the same way we now use physics books to understand the world around us. For traditional cultures, though, there was a oneness — such as with nature, involved in the general approach rather than the ultra categorization that occurs today. Now, we’ve drifted away from nature. We’ve become diverted with fanaticism and meaningless information. There is more availability of information but less ability to put it to good use. Hence, we are losing our understanding of living systems. We have to regain this knowledge and design our way out of the modern environmental predicaments. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Mnemonics are used to help our memories. - Traditional cultures used mnemonics, like chants, to pass on their ways of life. - These traditional philosophies were more based on the oneness of the universe. - We’ve drifted away from this way of thinking, our information being more widely available but our ability to survive in living systems much less. - We must get back to living systems and change the current state of the environment through design.

12.5.5. 4.45 – Patterns of Society [VIDEO]

12.5.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Illustrate how societal patterns reflect wealth - Recognize the need to redefine our contemporary notion of wealth BRIEF OVERVIEW In people and social animals, there are reoccurring patterns of society. Behavior changes in relation to the availability of resources. With fewer resources, fertility becomes greater, and there are more male births. When resources are adequate, there is a balance between female and male births. Then, with an overabundance, more females tend to be born and family sizes tend to shrink. The trend for both extremes is to move towards an equalized system. When we once again learn to look at wealth beyond money, recognizing the greater value of clean air, healthy food, comfortable housing, tied communities, and these types of attributes, we can begin designing a more balanced system. KEY TAKEAWAYS - There are recognizable patterns that occur in groups of humans and social animals. - Our behavior changes in relation to the abundance of our resources. - A lack of resources results in higher fertility and more males, while an overabundance leads to more females. - In both cases, the movement is towards adequate resources and equalized gender births. - If we redefine our notion of resources from money to things like clean air, good food, and comfortable shelter, we can begin design balanced societies.

12.5.6. 4.46 – The Arts in the Service of Life [VIDEO]

12.5.6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Describe different forms of art and how, in tribal cultures, they are used to pass on information - Relate the original intentions of art and its role in society BRIEF OVERVIEW The original use of art was the passing on of knowledge, not art for art’s sake. Songs were stirring and emotional but providing information was the meaning behind them. The same was the case for other forms of art, such as dance, sculpture, painted objects and so on. They were designed for specific data transfer, compacting information on the science of survival. The beautiful aspects of art are effective for memorization, but the service is the point. Art is not meant for museums and protected collections; it is meant to be used by people. That was the intention of art, to have intention, and with intention, we also can design our life systems. KEY TAKEAWAYS - The original use of art was to pass on knowledge. - Art could be stirring and emotional, but that was only in aid of relaying the point: the message. - Art was designed with the intention to transfer specific information. - It’s not for private collection or museums, but it is meant to be used by people to learn survival.

12.5.7. 4.47 – Additional Pattern Application [VIDEO]

12.5.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain what an herb spiral is, how it works, and why it’s a good use of pattern - Discuss how circular mulch pits are constructed and why they work - Analyze different patterns possible for use in flood plains - Describe setting up a water flow system on a macro level landscape BRIEF OVERVIEW We have many small pattern systems, such as the herb spiral. It’s a simple garden by the kitchen door for easy access while cooking. A spiral of rocks one to two meters in diameter stands about a meter high with a pond at the bottom. This design pattern creates a variety of microclimates, with drier climate plants put higher in the spiral (where drainage is better) and with attention paid to the angle of the sun. Plants can grow in the pond, while other plants can surround the outer edge of the spiral. This garden works on human reach, made so that we can reach the center without issue. There are also mulch pit patterns. Smaller ones can be holes about two feet deep with a one-foot planting shelf around them. This provides a centralized watering system and mulching/composting spot. It can then be replicated in a line, reducing irrigation needs and creating a spot for nutrient-rich materials to feed the surrounding plants. This can be done on a larger scale as well, going a meter deep and two meters across, using the excavated soil to create a growing ring around the hole. It can be filled into a heaping mound, the ring then planted with bananas (or papayas or productive palms), which can be inter-planted with moisture-loving plants like taro. The ring can be protected with living mulches like sweet potato. This is cyclical thinking rather than linear. We get more plants in less space, and they provide for one another. Flood plains offer us a great chance to maximize different natural patterns for our own purposes. Plantings that bend into the flow of the river concentrate energy, creating deeps, which could be good for fishing. Plantings that bend the flow of the river outwards are good for collecting mulch, filtering out firewood on the upside of the trees, and delivering sand and silt on the lower side. This is how to plant harmonically and use the energy of the flow. In the shallows, we can design trenches that migratory fish can use. In flood plains, we can make gridded systems for capturing silt and sand to supply an opportunistic crop planting between floods. We can also replicate natural flow forms to help us oxygenate and clean water. The patterns can send water sloshing through crafted figure eights, mimicking what happens in streamlines. This replication, though, can be much smaller and more intense (they can even be portable) than what happens with streams. On a larger, macro landscape level, we can put large dams—saddle dams and ridge point dams—at the tops of hills, with swale water harvesting systems connecting them all. These can overflow passively into larger dams and swales further downhill, which can also have lots of productive overflow systems, directing water to places where it can be most useful. There can be aquacultures in the lower slopes, fed by trellised canal systems. Here we are patterning around the flow of water, and we are cooperating with the landscape. This is how we use pattern to generate absolute abundance. With water established, we can introduce access in a meaningful way, working for us and leading us to appropriate places to put structures. KEY TAKEAWAYS - The herb spiral is a simple system near the kitchen, based on human reach, but with a pattern that creates many useful microclimates for culinary herbs. - Circular mulch pits are valuable ways to use difficult mulch/compost material and an efficient way to utilize a central watering and feeding source, all while encouraging biodiversity. - River flood plains open the gates to many effective patterns for routing energy flows, passively collecting harvests, and opportunistically taking advantage of natural phenomena. - Macro landscapes can be designed around water flows, stopping and dispersing water through the landscape on its gravitational push downwards and, in turn, creating an abundant system based on water flow. - These are examples of how we use natural patterns to create abundance and to guide our design choices to work harmoniously with nature.

12.5.8. 4.48 – Herb Spiral [ANMTN]

12.5.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The herb spiral is two meters in diameter and a meter high. With a nine-meter spiraled ramp planting surface, it is put closed to the kitchen and filled with necessary culinary herbs, all of which are reachable at an arm’s length. It can be watered with one two-meter sprinkler, leaving the well-drained top drier and having a productive pond be possible at the bottom.

12.5.9. 4.49 – Flow Interceptors on Flood Plain [ANMTN]

12.5.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Flood waters create opportunity when planned for. They carry silt, mulch, and firewood. They can be used to scare out river sand into flood plains. Deflector tree lines can push the water back inward to create scour holes and deep, open channels. Collector-deflector tree lines can bring silt, mulch, and wood into collection zones. Notched barriers in the shallows allow fish to swim through and aerates the water. Grids of low banks hold silt and water for an opportunistic crop.

12.5.10. 4.50 – Flowforms [ANMTN]

12.5.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Flow form is an ancient system for passively aerating water with a constant flow. It has basins in a stepped series that create horizontal flows in a figure eight pattern, pulsing from the outfall left to right before moving onto the next basin.

13. Module 6: Trees and their Energy Transactions

13.1. Modules 6.1 to 6.10

13.1.1. 6.1 – Chapter 6 Course Notes [PDF]

13.1.1.1. The Energy and Biomass of Trees This chapter is all about trees, but not in a botanical sense so much as in the sense of their role in energy transactions. Trees are central to ecosystems, not just because they are large, but rather because they affect the larger climate. Water flows differently due to trees. The wind is blocked, deflected, slowed or funneled depending on how trees are arranged. Light can be blocked, or its heat can be concentrated into specific areas. Soil is built, enriched and sheltered by trees. Animals, insects and other life forms all rely on trees to thrive. They are the go-between for the energy entering, absorbed, and dispersed within natural systems. Continued...

13.1.2. 6.2 – Introduction to Trees and their Energy Transactions [VIDEO]

13.1.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize that trees affect water flow, wind, light, and soil - Discover that trees are the interface for energy absorption and dispersion in a system BRIEF OVERVIEW While trees are a major element of ecosystems, this section will not focus on the botany but rather on the energy transactions that occur through trees. You’ll learn how they affect water flow, wind, light, and soil. They are the interface for the energy entering, being absorbed, and ultimately being dispersed within a system. In this section, you’ll start to understand the functionality of including trees within your systems. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Trees are major elements in ecosystems, and the perform important energy transactions. - You’ll learn how trees affect water flow, wind, light, soil and many other things. - You’ll recognize that trees are the interface for energy and living things, controlling the delivery, absorption and dispersion of energy. - You’ll understand how trees and their energy transactions function within our systems.

13.1.3. 6.3 – Trees in a Whole System [ANMTN]

13.1.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Trees work as guilds within a system, a family that interacts, stores, communicates, translates, and trades with a cooperative soil community. Energy and gases enter, then leave changed. Branches can be individuals, birds messengers delivering seeds, insects manufacturers of sugars that drop to roots. Fungi trade nutrients between roots. Legumes supply nutrients. Animals interact, distributing nutrients. The trees control the health and breeding cycle of browsers, and they transform organic and inorganic molecules into liquids, solids and gases.

13.1.4. 6.4 – The Biomass of the Tree [VIDEO]

13.1.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Identify the three main zones of biomass for a tree - Describe the process of a tree building the soil it stands in - Realize the links between trees and the greater ecosystem around them BRIEF OVERVIEW Trees have three main zones of biomass: the trunk and crown (above the surface), the detritus zone (the surface), and the root zone (below the surface). While the trunk and crown are what is often recognized as a tree, these other zones are just as important. The detritus zone is where shed organic matter builds up, and the root zone has as many interactions beneath the ground as the crown does above it. Throughout its lifetime, a tree will shed its own weight many times over, literally building the soil it’s standing in. The material is transported down and reborn as grasses, bacteria, fungi, insects, and so on. All of these elements are part of a tree’s biomass. Birds are extensions of the seed, root fungi add cell nutrients, insects prune leaves and add to the organic material. Everything is linked. It is impossible to define what goes on in all of these zones, but we can recognize that countless things are happening. All of the life forms are part of that biomass. Even animals are messengers for the tree, and their life depends on its life. A tree’s biomass is a blend of many individuals interacting independently to create the tree. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Trees have three biomass zones: the trunk and crown, the detritus, and the root zones. - Trees shed organic material, which is reborn as grass, bacteria, fungi, insects and so on. - Even animals, acting as messengers and extensions of the tree, are part of the its biomass. - All of the life forms within the trees zones are part of the biomass. - So, a tree’s biomass is a blend of many individuals interacting independently of it to create it.

13.1.5. 6.5 – Wind Effects [VIDEO]

13.1.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain the interaction between trees and wind - Analyze winds on a site by observing trees - Illustrate how the wind behaves when it hits a forest BRIEF OVERVIEW Wind affects trees by causing them to adjust their shapes to it. Trees reduce leaf surface area to become more aerodynamic. Designers can use this to analyze wind. Trees lean away from the wind, showing us wind direction and intensity. Roots spread wider to anchor trees against the wind. All of this is observable. Winds make trees sway, and this motion creates tension and compression. It stimulates thicker growth in the trunk, in which tree rings indicate points of tension. The trunks of tied trees will actually thicken above the stability, weakening the base of the trunk. The outside of forests has thicker trees due to the sway, whereas trees inside the forest will be thinner and more pole like. Sixty percent of wind hitting a forest will lift, while forty percent permeates the forest. This creates the shape of an airplane’s wing at the top of a clump of trees grown in open space. On the leeward side of such clumps, rain drops, and this also happens within the forest, where other material drops, creating a recognizable bump. Beyond a 100 meters inside the forest, the wind will be completely clean, and after a 1000 meters, there is no wind. Trees (and tree rings) are an accurate gauge of wind. From them, designers can read how to install windbreaks, wind tunnels, sun traps, and so on. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Trees adjust their shape to wind and reduce leaf surface area to become more aerodynamic. - Observing the lean of a tree, designers can learn about wind direction and intensity. - The swaying caused by wind is reflected in tree trunks, which thicken due to tension. - Sixty percent of wind moving into forests lifts, and forty percent continues into the trees. - On the leeward side of forests, there is more rain. - Within a forest, wind drops organic material, and by 100 meters, it has dropped everything. By 1000, it disappears. - Knowing the direction of the wind helps to design breaks, tunnels, sun traps, and other key things.

13.1.6. 6.6 – Wind Effects on Trees [ANMTN]

13.1.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Trees deform as permanent prevalent wind crosses them, and this can be used to assess the strength and history of the wind of a site. Stage 0 is no effect. 1 is brushing, a slight deformation of leaves, needles and the crown of the tree. 2 is slight flagging, with small branches bent in the wind. Stage 3 is moderate flagging, with larger branches bending with the wind. 4 is strong flagging in which all branches are shaped by the wind, and 5 is a partial throw, such that even the trunk is bent but still largely vertical. Stage 6 is a full throw, and even the trunk is bent to leeward. Finally, stage 7 shows the tree totally prostrate to create a carpeting ground cover. Wood tension from this can be observed in the tree rings of the trunk.

13.1.7. 6.7 – Ekman Spirals [ANMTN]

13.1.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Ekman spirals are the overturn of wind, and they repeat four or five times downwind, causing compression of wind streams (as much as twenty times the height of the barrier). This results in bands of rain.

13.1.8. 6.8 – Temperature Effects [VIDEO]

13.1.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Describe how trees moderate temperature day and night - Give examples of designing with trees to regulate temperatures BRIEF OVERVIEW Trees can cause temperature effects. Evaporation cools, and this is a universal constant that creates cooler air around trees during the day. Condensation warms, another universal constant, and that means air around trees at night is warmer. On average, leaves are 86% water, so they, too, are cooler in the day and warmer at night. Plants in general are fifteen degrees Celsius warmer than the surrounding air. These effects on temperature can be a major factor in design choices. Tree clumps upwind of a house will keep it cool in the summer and warm in the winter. Trees belts can be created to stop cold winds while creating sun traps. Even small things factor in: Red leaves reflect more light than green, white leaves even more than red, and this reflection keeps things cooler. Trees dehumidify the air with direct absorption in the tropics, making things feel cooler. Permaculture designers use things like this to reduce energy inputs and cost. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Trees cause changes in temperature. - Evaporation cools, and this makes the air around trees in the daytime cooler. - Condensation warms, and this makes the air around trees in the night warmer. - Leaves are mostly water, so they are cooler than the air in the day and warmer than the air at night. - In general, plants and trees are fifteen degrees (C) warmer than the surrounding air. - Designers should use a basic knowledge of the temperature effects of trees to benefit their systems.

13.1.9. 6.9 – Trees and Precipitation [VIDEO]

13.1.9.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - List the different ways in which trees help to maintain the atmosphere - Recognize where trees can play a major role in design and climate - Explain the negative, lasting effects of aridity caused by deforestation BRIEF OVERVIEW Trees play a major part in creating both the soil and the atmosphere from which precipitation—not just rain, but condensation, snow and ice—drops. Actions of the soil life in humus provided by tree litter help to create our atmosphere, such that trees may do up to eighty percent of the work for maintaining it. Thus, for a healthy atmosphere, seventy percent of landscape should be trees, with oceans and bodies of water—kept in good shape by trees—doing the rest. The forest front, which lifts sixty percent of wind and absorbs forty percent, does a lot for us as well. It buffers the wind, which drops what its carrying within 100 meters of forest and disappears after 1000 meters. Cold air is warmed, dry air humidified, creating heat and humidity levels good for enhancing life. Cool air climbs and increases the chance of rain. Equally so, designers can do this with tree belts and wind breaks. Sea-facing coasts contain some of the world’s great forests. The moist air coming off the sea is warmer in the evening and meets with cooler leaves, causing condensation. This condensation can be as much as 86% of the precipitation. Cutting the forests from these slopes dramatically reduces the rain downwind, inland. The Canary Islands are an example of this happening. The leaves of trees, due to indentations in their surface, can have over forty acres of surface area. All of this area interacts with the air such that forests gently but continuously rain overnight. Unfortunately, through deforestation, we — humanity — can destroy all of this in one lifetime, desertifying the landscape for future generations. Thus, we have a cultural obligation to pass on info about forest gardens as long-term systems of abundance. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Trees play a major role — up to eighty percent of the work — in creating soil and the atmosphere. - Forest fronts buffer winds, warm cold air, humidify dry air, and set up climatic levels that encourage life. - Sea-facing coasts create condensation for warm, water-laden air off the sea and help to provide rains further inland. - A tree’s leaves can have forty acres of surface area, interacting with the air to cause condensation drips. - People now have a cultural responsibility to pass on information about maintaining forests, which can become deserts in just one lifetime.

13.1.10. 6.10 – Percentages of Total Precipitation [ANMTN]

13.1.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Looking at precipitation on sea-facing hillsides, we discover that trees work like condensers as well as providing cloud-seeding bacteria that create rain and wind-stream compression that causes rain bands. They also re-humidify the air through transpiration. They create most of the conditions that make up total precipitation.

13.2. Modules 6.11 to 6.13

13.2.1. 6.11 – How a Tree Interacts with Rain [VIDEO]

13.2.1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Illustrate the power of rain and how trees harness it - Demonstrate the way rain and trees interact to increase soil fertility - Discover that soil holds much of our fresh water - Describe how forests protect the soil and feed streams BRIEF OVERVIEW Rain has the power to erode. It can take away eighty tons of soil per hectare, up to a 1000 tons in an extreme event. But, trees intercept rain in their crowns, breaking it into mist. The runoff becomes tiny, less than the soil the forest is creating. Trees will capture rain until they are saturated, and beyond that, they will distort the flow — the powerful impact — of the rain. As it enters the forest, rain collects matter off trees, becoming measurably more nutritious. This enhanced water goes down to the humus, which can hold one-third of its weight in moisture. Fungal hyphae and bacterial gel capture even more of the rain. Then, thirty to forty percent of a trees bulk is in the soil, nearly ninety percent of that in the first sixty centimeters. This root mat absorbs the nutrient-rich solution, and later the water is transpired from the tree crown back into the atmosphere. Much of the water is soil-bound, and trees can harvest as small as fifteen atmospheres of that. Above the ground, the forest mass is over ninety percent water. So, in effect, a forest — root mat, soil, fungi, bacteria, humus, plants — is a large, managed lake of recycled water. When full, water permeates into underground sources. Soil can hold two and a half to seven centimeters of rain per thirty centimeters (deep), and organic-rich soil can hold somewhere between ten and thirty centimeters in the same volume. The interstitial water, what’s between soil particles, can be as little zero in bad conditions and up to five centimeters in good conditions. It can take one to forty years for water to percolate through and down to the ocean. Forests give soil time to hold water, alleviating droughts, recharging storage, and benefiting the forest itself. Trees are responsible for more water in streams than rain is, which is why they continue to flow, are clean, and have so much life. Forests are like a tap continuously running. Plus, they cause Ekman spirals, which produces more rainfall, and from their leaves, wind picks up cloud-seeding bacteria, which creates more rainfall. In short, when we clear forests, we inevitably end up with a dust bowl. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Rain has the power to erode, but forests neutralize that, creating absorption instead. - Rain falling into a forest picks up nutrients from trees, absorbs into the humus and fungi and bacteria, is harvested by trees’ root mats, and is eventually transpired back into the atmosphere. - Water becomes soil-bound, where trees can absorb it, creating forest masses above ground that are up to ninety-five percent water. - Thus, forests--composed of roots, fungi, bacteria, humus, and plants--are like giant lakes of recycled water. - Soil rich in organic material absorbs much more water and holds it for much longer. - Trees provide more water in streams than rain, which is why streams continually run, stay clean, and support life. - Winds interaction with trees, through Ekman spirals and cloud-seeding bacteria on leaves, creates more rain.

13.2.2. 6.12 – Forest Interactions with Climates [ANMTN]

13.2.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Forests along the coasts produce most of the water for continuous rainfall. Prevailing winds from the sea carry moisture originating from the sea, with seven percent of the total atmospheric water evaporated from the sea. Sixty percent of this wind goes over the forest, forty percent into it. After the first inland rains, twenty-five percent is evaporated from the crown of the forest, fifty percent is transpired by the trees, and twenty-five percent goes to rivers and ground water. The first rains are of sixty percent sea origin, forty percent forest origin, with the next rain being fifty-fifty. Further inland, the rain becomes 100% forest origin. If trees leading to foothills near the coast are cut, rainfall might decrease by fifty percent. On misty or foggy hilltops, up to eighty-five percent of precipitation comes from tree condensation, with only fifteen percent falling as rain. If these trees are cut, precipitation could decrease by eighty percent. In this circumstance, clouds could possibly lift from the area permanently, making reforestation very hard. Clouds are formed by the water provided by trees. On a fully forested landscape, roughly half of the water is returned to the air via transpiration, with about a quarter evaporating off of leaves. The remaining water is surface runoff. The forest recycles around 74.1% of the total amount of water with no evaporation from the forest soil.

13.2.3. 6.13 – How a Tree Interacts with Rain [ANMTN]

13.2.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The distribution and composition of rainwater is changed by its interaction with trees and plants. The incoming energy is conserved, while the kinetic energy is absorbed. Water streams down the branches to the trunk. The total water content within the crown of a tree, including the air mass within the canopy, can be up to ninety-three percent. Water pools in branches and is held in the fibers of the bark. The trunk can be eighty-six percent water. When the crown is saturated, through-fall begins, picking up nutrients on leaves, and delivering them by the crown drip, feeding the hair roots on the outside of the root zone. When the root zone is saturated, water seeps to the soil reservoir. The water’s nutrient quality is improved with each transfer, and there is constant evaporation and transpiration from the crown of the tree, which recharges the clouds. Fogs drift horizontally through trees, causing condensation. The water can be as much as ninety percent of the total tree. Evaporation from the soil in forests is very small or completely nil. Surface runoff is slowed dramatically by leaf litter. The leaf litter and humus layer on the forest floor hold one-third of its volume in water. Water is also bound on soil particles within the root zone. Fungi connected to roots store extra moisture. Eighty-five percent of all tree roots and ninety-four percent of water is stored in the top two feet (60 cm) of soil.

14. Module 7: Water

14.1. Modules 7.1 to 7.10

14.1.1. 7.1 – Chapter 7 Course Notes [PDF]

14.1.1.1. Water Cycles and Water Storage In this chapter, we examine water, probably the most important element to life enhancement. Water has many behavioural constants that we can use to our advantage in design. In doing so, we mustn’t only address water harvesting and storage, but we also should think about hydrating the landscape and using water to enhance life and biodiversity. Our goal is to use water many times over before letting it leave a site, and equally so, designs should also account for any soiled water we create or that crosses a location, dealing with it in a productive way. In permaculture, water has to be a fascinating subject. Continued...

14.1.2. 7.2 – Introduction to Water [VIDEO]

14.1.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize that water is probably the most important element - List the many ways that water features in permaculture designs BRIEF OVERVIEW Water is probably the most important element, and it has the most constants in its behaviors. It gives us the most life enhancement, and we are obligated to design such that water can perform these duties. These designs are not only about harvesting and storing water, not only about hydrating landscapes and the procreation of life through water, but also they are about using water as many times as possible. Then, when we’ve soiled water, we must deal with that. In permaculture, we have to have a fascination with water. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Water is likely the most important element in a system. - Its behaviors are constant and can be life-enhancing through design. - While we harvest and store water, hydrate landscapes, and encourage life, we must design so that we use water as many times as possible. - We also must address those time when we soil water, even organically. - As permaculturalists, we have to be fascinated with water.

14.1.3. 7.3 – Regional Intervention in the Water Cycle [VIDEO]

14.1.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Examine our ability to cloud seed and change the local water cycles - Predict the negative effects globally of localized deforestation - Identify the positive outcomes of carefully designed water storages - Appraise what we can do in terms of water storage within a design BRIEF OVERVIEW We can cloud seed. Not only is it possible, but it is already being practiced. It can be done by planes, ground burners, or rocket. Tea dusts make it rain, as do rain dances done at particular times in particular places to send dust up in the air. Orographic lifts caused by trees and mounds of just four to six meters high can create rain events. We can help dry areas with rain. Sea winds are carrying moisture, and we just have to induce it to drop that moisture. Clearing trees along the coasts actually creates drought situations, such as in California. Deforestation changes climate, decreasing rainfall and stream flows while increasing soil erosion and salted landscapes. We know that this occurs in the lowlands below where deforestation occurs. Instead, we should forest high ridges. Any slope more the eighteen degrees, high ridgelines with cross winds, sea-facing coastal slopes, and high alpine forest (where rain soaks into the soil) must all remain forested. We also must focus on water storage and soakage in soils, learning to condition and rip before planting trees. We can include things like sustainable agriculture and careful grazing cycles, but trees — something lacking in contemporary agriculture — are crucial to prevent water-logging and salting the landscape. Through design, our encouraging water infiltration via earthworks like swales and soil conditioning, an area with 85% runoff can become one with zero water losses. Soil can store more than streams, and it increases the base flow of water. We can design effective flows into dependable water storage, recharging basins and swales. This reduces wildfires, and via ponds/dams and wetland/swamps, life proliferates. We can drought-proof landscapes through design, and we can have highly productive aquaculture as part of it. Life can exist on biological storages, such as coconuts, cacti, agave, and palms, and vegetation can act like a sponge, transpiring water to create humidity other plants can feed on. We can have storage tanks for clean household water, and we can have soak beds for mildly polluted water, such as runoff from roads. All of it can keep our landscapes hydrated. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We have the ability to cloud seed and cause rain. - Dusts (delivered by planes or rain dances) and orographic lifts (caused by trees or mounds) can cause rain. - Deforestation of coasts causes massive climate change, moving inland regions into drought. - We must reforest or preserve forests on sea-facing slopes, slopes of more than eighteen degrees, high ridgelines with cross winds, and high alpine forests. - We must also focus on water storage and soaking into soil through soil conditioning and earthworks. - Soil conditions improve through the inclusion of trees, something lacking in contemporary agriculture. - We can make drought-proof landscapes by designing effective water flows into dependable storages.

14.1.4. 7.4 – The Global Water Cycle [ANMTN]

14.1.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Most water is cycled through evaporation from the sea, with smaller percentages evaporating from biological water stores and transpiring through biological life. Precipitation is intercepted by forest canopies and flows into natural bodies of water. Some water seeps into groundwater flowing within subsoil to create springs or into deep water storages that also form freshwater springs.

14.1.5. 7.5 – Earthworks for Water Conservation and Storage [VIDEO]

14.1.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Calculate the volume of water going into a catchment area, including the 24-hour maximum - Give examples of using water storage for increased productivity - Explain the basic idea and set up of a permaculture water-harvesting system BRIEF OVERVIEW We can calculate the volume of water going into a catchment by looking at a contour map. Using the fact that water only moves at a right angle to contour, we estimate the area that will feed a catchment. Then, we find out the maximum 24-hour occurrence through climate records. At this point, the volume of rain times the area will give the amount of water potentially caught in twenty-four hours. Divide this by twenty-four for the hourly rate, divide the hourly rate by sixty for the volume per minute, and divide the minute rate by sixty for the per-second rate. Then, we over-calculate everything to be safe. With water and its storage, we have the potential to make a space richer in life, either naturally so or for potential production. Water is a great productive element, and we can enhance this through design. For example, dams can be designed with ridges for cultivating productive water plants, and we could also use floating growers for more production. Adding a swale to the system could both increase the volume caught, as well as add productivity by planting trees — swales are tree-growing systems — downhill to take advantage (and regulate) the water seeped into the soil. Water conservation comes through adjusting runoff, catching water so that it spreads, soaks, and hydrates the landscape. Conservation increases productivity, with things like swales creating tree systems, and the storage of water in the landscape is appropriate when such systemic connections are made. Storage tanks (and catchments) should start as high as possible, and the catchment system can then work its way down. Remember: Water can’t move up without energy to do it, but it moves down for free. KEY TAKEAWAYS - We can calculate the volume of water potentially caught by using contour maps and weather records. - The area of a catchment times the volume of rain will tell us how much water is caught. - We then over-calculate all catchments to be safe. - Water storages enhance life for either natural systems and potential productivity. - Water conservation is achieved by adjusting runoff so that it spreads, soaks, and hydrates the landscape. - We should start catching and storing water as high as possible (for the head pressure) and work our way down (for the life systems).

14.1.6. 7.6 – Earthworks for Conservation and Storage: Small Dams and Tanks [VIDEO]

14.1.6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Provide the reasons that dams and storage tanks are integral to permaculture design - Estimate where dams should be, and how much of the landscape they can occupy -Recognize the correct type of soil and adjustments for reliable earthen dam walls BRIEF OVERVIEW It’s very valuable to have small dams and storage tanks throughout the landscape, providing water for wildlife and our stock animals. This water is surplus, and its storage is for drier periods. Through dams, we also can have aquaculture for production of water plants and animals, and this, in turn, will create nutrient flow into the system. Dams also extend the flow of water throughout the year. They moderate floods and droughts, as well as lessen the likelihood of wildfires. Small dams are suited for humid climates (not arid, which requires accounting for evaporation), and humid landscapes can be ten to fifteen percent water. These areas will be the most productive. Small dams have walls less than six meters high, but it’s still vital to make sure the walls can handle the water. We use oversized level spillways to pacify overflow and allow it to exit to gently. For earthen dams, the soil content should be at least forty percent clay fraction; otherwise, different techniques — such as applying bentonite — will likely be required. It’s important to find the highest point, the key point, for water storage with head pressure (high energy value at a higher cost). It’s equally important to have less expensive dams on slopes of less than five percent, which will be life-rich. Before building these dams, always look at what locals normally do and use their knowledge to help design the system. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Small dams and tanks throughout the landscape are valuable, creating habitat for wildlife and water sources for stock. - They can also be used for aquaculture, plants and animals, which will add nutrient flows into the system. - Small dams are for humid (not arid) climates. - We have to be sure the walls can handle the water and provide oversized level spillways for passive overflow. - Small dams can by ten to fifteen percent of the humid landscape. - They moderate flood, drought, and wildfires. - Key point dams provide storage with head pressure. - Dams on slight slopes provide life-rich storage. - Use local techniques and knowledge for designing.

14.1.7. 7.7 – Water Storages and Uses [ANMTN]

14.1.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A potential water storage layout for a small farm should try to use gravity-flow systems, such as a high dam pond fed by higher water catchments, with a spillway overflow to other water catchments. By using a siphon pipe intake, such a pond can irrigate gardens with gravity, as well as feed stock drinking troughs and flush toilets (if necessary). Well-guttered roofs can catch and move rainwater to tanks, with overflows also being used. These rainwater tanks can be gravity-fed to the house for domestic use. Waste water can be moved to septic tanks, then on to a reed bed and into a soak system. Water storage areas should be fenced off from domesticated animals, planted to stability with trees, and with dam walls cultivated with trees that lack taproots, such as willows and clumping bamboo.

14.1.8. 7.8 – Earthworks for Conservation and Storage: Dams (Ponds) [VIDEO]

14.1.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: -Differentiate between dams and ponds - Describe a valley dam, the most common type of dam - Relate the process of building a dam wall for a valley dam BRIEF OVERVIEW Dams and ponds are actually slightly different, with dams having a wall that hold back water and ponds being sub-surface. Valley dams are the most common dam, but they are also the most difficult to build and maintain, due to constant pressure of water naturally moving to them. They are built across the valley, with the wall being only as high as the lowest ridge. Walls are built with dirt excavated from the area where the water will sit, and the wall must be higher than the waterline, this bit of the wall being referred to as the freeboard. To create valley dams, we must find the right location, generally as high as possible, preferably with parts of the valley where the ridges are close. Topsoil should be removed and stored for later use. A trench (the key) should be dug about a meter or two deep, where the center of the dam wall will be. This trench will then be filled with high-content clay soil excavated from the spot where water congregates. The clay is compacted every 200 millimeters (8 inches) until the dam wall is built. Once the wall is up, a level spillway system, which controls the dams water level, should be installed at one or both sides of the dam, but into the hill, not the dam wall itself. The topsoil can then be used to dress the wall, going down to the waterline and covering the outside of the wall. It should be grassed up or tree-d but only with trees that don’t have taproots (bamboo, willows). A silt trap above the waterline of the back of the dam could be used for filtering the water with aquatic plants like reeds and capturing debris. KEY TAKEAWAYS - A dam is a body of water held back by a wall, whereas a pond is sub-surface. - The most common dam, the valley dam, is also the most difficult to build and maintain. - Valley dam walls are built across a narrow part of the valley, as high as possible, using material excavated from the upper side, where the water will congregate. - A valley dam should have a key below the wall to stop subterranean water flow. - The dam should also have a spillway that determines the waterline and is built into the hill rather than the dam wall.

14.1.9. 7.9 – Earthworks for Conservation and Storage: Saddle Dam [VIDEO]

14.1.9.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Summarize what a saddle dam is, how and where it is built, and what it is good for BRIEF OVERVIEW Saddle dams have two walls, and they are applicable when a ridgeline has two peaks with a potential catchment between them. The water caught will form a tessellation pattern, curving inward with the contour of the peaks. Swales can then encircle the hills to increase the catchment area and provide good opportunity for trees. Spillways could either be at the edges of the dam walls, anywhere along the swales, or in multiple positions. Or, if the area is meant to be used for grazing, a diversion drain (slightly off-contour) can be used to increase the catchment area without having to grow trees. These dams are great for capturing water high to be gravity-fed somewhere. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Saddle dams have two walls. - They are positioned on ridgelines between two peaks. - Swales or diversion ditches can be used to maximize catchment area. - Spillways can be put anywhere along a swale. - Swales provide the opportunity for growing trees on the hill. - Diversion ditches allow the catchment area to expand without having to grow trees. - Spillways must be next to the dam wall when diversion ditches are used.

14.1.10. 7.10 – Saddle Dam Example [ANMTN]

14.1.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Saddle ponds or saddle dams are very useful water storages for fire control, wildlife, and some irrigation. They are the highest possible type of dam/pond in the landscape. Water comes from hilltops and is directed into the saddle dam.

14.2. Modules 7.11 to 7.20

14.2.1. 7.11 – Earthworks for Conservation and Storage: Ridgepoint Dam [VIDEO]

14.2.1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Summarize what a ridgepoint dam is, how and where it is built, and what it is good for BRIEF OVERVIEW Ridge point dams are very unusual. They are positioned where a ridge point shallows out. The wall tapers into the one side of the ridge and boomerangs around the shallow to the other side, creating a jelly bean shape. These dams won’t capture water well without attachments, either swales or diversion ditches, to increase the catchment area. Swales are tree growing systems, so they must be planted out. These dams are great for irrigation, fire, wildlife (because it has good vantage point), and swimming (because it has cool skyline views). KEY TAKEAWAYS - Ridge point dams are put where ridges shallow out. - They are shaped like a boomerang, tapering into the sides of the ridge. - Without attachments (swales or diversion drains), they won’t catch much water. - They are very useful for irrigation, fire, and wildlife habitat.

14.2.2. 7.12– Ridgepoint Dam [ANMTN]

14.2.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Ridge point dams are boomerang or jelly-bean shaped, following the contours of plateau areas of ridges. They can be fed by diversion ditches or swales. They should have level sill spillways anywhere along the swales, or next to the dam walls in the case of diversion ditches.

14.2.3. 7.13 – Earthworks for Conservation and Storage: Keypoint Dam [VIDEO]

14.2.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Summarize what a keypoint dam is, how and where it is built, and what it is good for BRIEF OVERVIEW The key point is the highest point for potential water storage in every valley, and it is where the landscape goes from convex to concave. They can be identified by noting that, on convex surfaces, we walk on the balls of our feet but, on concave, we are back on our heels, so we look for this change. This dam, though usually small, is very important because it can be used for gravity-fed irrigation and usually starts the water catchment system. Swales can help for gathering more water, and below the key point is where the slopes are most usable. Key point dams provide high energy water storage, but are generally low in life. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Key points are the highest point in any valley for potential water storage. - They are where the landscape changes from convex to concave. - Key point dams are usually small, but they very important because they are high in energy. - Below the key point, the slopes become more usable. - Key points can be identified by using footsteps: On convex surfaces, we walk on the balls of our feet, while on concave surface, we walk on our heels.

14.2.4. 7.14 – Keypoint Dam [ANMTN]

14.2.4.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Keypoint ponds are in the highest possible point that a dam can be constructed in a valley. The keypoint is at the top of every valley in humid landscape, and it is where the slope of the valley goes from convex to concave, the point of inflexion. These dams can be fed via diversion drains or swale systems with spillways. This starts the water series of storage, soakage, and irrigation in the designed landscape.

14.2.5. 7.15 – Earthworks for Conservation and Storage: Contour Dam [VIDEO]

14.2.5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Summarize what a contour dam is, how and where it is built, and what it is good for BRIEF OVERVIEW Contour dams are in shallower landscape, where contours a broader and the lines farther apart. The dam wall is parallel to the contour line, and at the side it turns back into the slope. Water will sit along contour at the back, and generally the bottom is very flat. It’s the ideal fish pond because the bottom landscape can be sculpted, with deeps for safety and shallows for feeding. Ridges can be installed for planting. Swales can extend out to increase catchment area, as well as connect dams along the same contour line and provide options for spillways. In shallow country, it’s easy to grow and maintain trees, so there could be productive forest systems, hydrated by swales, between productive aquatic systems, fed by swales. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Contour dams are in flat landscapes with contour lines that are far apart. - The dam wall is parallel to contour, with sides that close back into the slope. - The bottom can be sculpted to work well for fish and aquatic plants. - Swales can increase water catchment area and provide options for putting in spillways.

14.2.6. 7.16 – Contour Dam [ANMTN]

14.2.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Contour dams are practical where slopes flatten to eight degrees or less. They work well in a series. They have one main wall, either convex or concave, following contour, and two side walls tapering into the hill. They are fed by swales or diversion drains as well, and they make perfect fish habitats (and harvesting) due to the shallows they create.

14.2.7. 7.17 – Earthworks for Conservation and Storage: Turkey Nest Dam [VIDEO]

14.2.7.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Summarize what a turkey’s nest dam is, how and where it is built, and what it is good for BRIEF OVERVIEW The turkey nest dam, or ring pond, is put on flat land and has no water catchment, only the rain that falls in it. The wall is a ring, generally the shape of circle (for convenience), around excavated land. At the top of hill, it forms an earth tank, from which water can be siphoned back down by gravity. Turkey nest dams are much cheaper than using constructed tanks out concrete, plastic, or galvanized steel for the volume stored, but the water is meant for irrigation rather than drinking water. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Turkey nest dams are on flat land and have not water catchment area. - The wall is a ring built from the earth excavated inside of it. - These are earth tanks that can hold a much higher volume of water per dollar spent than constructed tanks of concrete, galvanized steel, or plastic. - They can be put on the top of a hill for gravity-fed irrigation.

14.2.8. 7.18 – Ring and Turkey Nest Dam Example [ANMTN]

14.2.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The ring pond is usually on flat land and acts as an earth tank. Water is usually pumped or caught from a roof/parking area. It’s usually circular in shape and provides some low head pressure in flat country.

14.2.9. 7.19 – Earthworks for Conservation and Storage: Check Dams [VIDEO]

14.2.9.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Summarize what a check dam is, how and where it is built, and what it is good for BRIEF OVERVIEW Check dams are on flowing rivers or streams, and they are made from stones and/or concrete. On the low side, they have a grill to capture debris and a channel that goes off to the side. Behind the wall, the water level rises and irrigation canals can lead off wherever that is happening. The wall must be very strong and the top of it very level, and its sides are cut into the banks. In drier landscapes, the area behind the wall is filled with silt, becoming a sand dam used to soak the landscape or send water to another location. In humid landscapes, the space behind a check dam wall is a large body of water. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Check dams are on flowing river or stream. - The wall is made from concrete or rock, is cut into the banks, and must have a very level on top. - A channel with a grill filtering out debris can be created on the low side of the dam wall. - Behind the dam wall, irrigation canals can be fed by the rising water level. - In arid landscapes, the dam fills with silt and becomes a sand dam, either soaking the landscape or feeding another location. - In humid landscapes, a large body water forms behind the wall.

14.2.10. 7.20 – Diversion Check Dams [ANMTN]

14.2.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Diversion check dams divert seasonal flow to ridges or swales on contour. The wall can be made of rock or heavy, compacted clay.

14.3. Modules 7.21 to 7.30

14.3.1. 7.21 – Concrete Flood Check Dam [ANMTN]

14.3.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Concrete flood check dams allow normal flows but retard flood flows, preventing rapid discharge. The foundations are cut into the stream profile and have an adjustable ninety-degree swivel to vary water retention levels. Mark As Complete

14.3.2. 7.22 – Silt Check Dam [ANMTN]

14.3.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Silt check dams made from concrete or rock gabions hold silt fields and spread water, reducing silt loads in streams.

14.3.3. 7.23 – Check Dam for Ram Pump or Water Wheel [ANMTN]

14.3.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Check dams can be fitted with ram pumps or to turn water wheels, but they only need a one-to-three-meter head. Modest energy production can be harvested and used to lift water or divert it to irrigation canals.

14.3.4. 7.24 – Earthworks for Conservation and Storage: Gabion Dams [VIDEO]

14.3.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Summarize what a gabion dam is, how and where it is built, and what it is good for BRIEF OVERVIEW Gabion walls built across eroding gullies create level silt fields and resist floods by moderating flows.

14.3.5. 7.25 – Gabion Dams Example [ANMTN]

14.3.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Gabion walls built across eroding gullies create level silt fields and resist floods by moderating flows.

14.3.6. 7.26 – Building Dams [VIDEO]

14.3.6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Recognize the primary concerns when getting ready to build a dam - Explain how dam walls should be constructed, including siphon pipes - Estimate the value of any given dam BRIEF OVERVIEW There are a couple of concerns as we get started building a dam. Will there be enough material to build the wall? This is especially worrisome in steeper areas. Is the material the right type? Ideally, we are look for a 50% or higher clay content so that we know the wall will seal. When we excavate the dam area to get the soil, we also must go slightly behind the backside waterline, being aware of the stability of the back slope. It may require planting or more earthworks to be sure it doesn’t collapse. We want to get the water as high as possible, so we can hopefully use gravity instead of pumps, and we may require extra catchments through swales or diversion ditches to insure we get enough water. Any dam above six meters high should definitely involve a civil engineer. The dam wall should have a slight concave. As the wall is built, the soil should be compacted every 200 millimeters (eight inches), with no rocks, logs, or topsoil in the mixture. The soil should also not be dry or saturated. The key is crucial for water security and stopping subterranean water flow. It can be a shallow as .6 meters in the right conditions, but it’s base must be on subsoil that will seal, not gravel or sand. The wall must also lock into the side slopes. The inner slope should be 3:1 (up to 5:1 on large dams), and the outer slope should be at least 2:1 (or 2.5:1 on large dams). The freeboard should be a meter above the water line. Finally, an oversized spillway, at least a meter below the crest, should be installed off to the side of the wall. Siphon pipes can be installed underneath the wall for gravity feeding, but they will need at least one baffle plate (two or three for larger dams). A typical baffle plate is one meter by one meter and has a flange in the middle, where two pipes will connect. The best spot to put a baffle plate is directly the key because it should have the best clay. Concrete footing should be installed around the pipe outside of each side of the wall to prevent water hammer vibration when the tap is turned on. The value of a dam can be judged, at least partly, by the ratio of the distance back of the water held to length of dam wall. If water stretches back three times the length of a dam wall, that’s a good value. Regardless, dams are a great asset to the landscape, as they are full of biological life and help to revitalize an area. Dam walls can be used as roads/bridges, dams can be used to water stock animals (through trough systems), and many other features — beaches, islands — can be included. KEY TAKEAWAYS - When starting a dam, it is important to consider if there will be enough material, and if that material is the right kind (at least 50% clay content). - The excavated dam is used to build the dam wall, and the excavation should reach beyond the waterline at the back slope. - Higher dams allow for a gravity-fed water supply. - Extra catchments — swales or diversion ditches — can help with filling dams. - A dam over six meters high should undoubtedly involve a civil engineer. - Soil used to build a dam should be free of rocks bigger than gravel, logs, and topsoil, and it should be moist but neither dry or saturated. - The key is a very important part of constructing a dam. It stops subterranean water flow. - The slope of dam walls should be at least 3:1 on the water side and 2:1 on the outside, as well as locked into the side slope. - The freeboard should be at least a meter with an oversized spillway allowing safe overflow. - A siphon pipe can be installed underneath the wall, but it must have at least one baffle plate, the key being the best location. - Concrete footing at the ends of a siphon pipe will prevent water hammer vibration. - A good money value dam should hold water three times as far back as the wall is long.

14.3.7. 7.27 – Landscape Zones [ANMTN]

14.3.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Ridges and skyline catchments are where most water falls. The upper slopes of twelve to eighteen degrees should be forested. The key point is where the slope changes. The lower slopes, of four degrees to twelve degrees, are the best production spots. The slopes of less than four degrees create large biological storages and intercrop.

14.3.8. 7.28 – Dam Building [ANMTN]

14.3.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Decreasing slope provides far more potential for water storage, as well as reducing the cost of moving the earth to do so. Slopes of seven to nine degrees are great, but slopes more severe than that become impractical. The foundation of the dam, the key way, cuts off subterranean flow and is the crucial feature to prevent leaking. The core, the center section of the dam above the key, should get the best clay material. The inner wall should be three times longer than the height, the outer wall at least two and a half times longer. The crest, the width of the top, is usually wide enough to drive a tractor across. The base is from the toe of the inner wall to the toe of the outer wall, and the freeboard is the height of the dam wall above the water and is set by the spillway. Earthworks can also supply underwater ledges for water crops and opportunistic gardens when water levels drop.

14.3.9. 7.29 – Dam with Lock Pipes [ANMTN]

14.3.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Dams with lock pipes can be used when the body of water is large enough to feed irrigation canals in a large key line design system. Large dams with large bodies of water need protection from waves on the inside of the wall, a lock pipe needs to be carefully installed by being laid on solid ground for its entire length. Baffle plates should be fitted and installed along the pipe to prevent seepage around it. Concrete suppress blocks should be installed at each end of the pipe to protect it from water hammer vibration when being turned on and off, with a marker post being set on the intake side of the dam so that it can be easily found.

14.3.10. 7.30 – Sealing a Leaky Dam [VIDEO]

14.3.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Discuss what needs to be examined in the case of a leaky dam - Describe how to use and produce gley for sealing a dam - Name other options, besides gley, for sealing leaky dams BRIEF OVERVIEW When a dam is leaky, the first thing to do is examine the angles of the inner walls. They should be no steeper than thirty degrees, so they may need to be reshaped. After that, there are several methods for sealing. A thick layer of gley (sappy green material) and manure can be put at the bottom of the dam and covered with soil so that it becomes anaerobic. Animals can be used to produce a similar situation. The dam can be temporarily fenced, and grass-eating animals — especially cows and sheep — can be fed with lush, green material. They will stamp it into the earth and add manure to the mixture. Slowly fill the dam so that little by little the leaks are glued by the gley and manure. Otherwise, there are products available. Polymers, bentonite, and impregnated geo-fabric are all other viable options. With geo-fabric, dig trenches on edges of the dam and gravel it in so it stays in place. With bentonite, powder the area with 20 kg per square meter, and add 300 millimeter of clay soil and compact it. Filling the dam with water helps to seal everything up. Plastic liners are a last resort. They will eventually fail, whereas the natural methods will likely last indefinitely. KEY TAKEAWAYS - The first thing to check with a leaky dam is that the walls are no steeper than thirty degrees. They may need to be reshaped. - Gley is sappy green material, and along with manure, it can be used to seal dam walls. - Gley and manure can either be covered with soil to become anaerobic or stomped into the soil by grass-eating, herd animals. - Other options for sealing leaky dams include polymers, bentonite, and impregnated geo-fabric. - As a last resort, plastic liners can be used, but they will ultimately fail and need to be replaced.

14.4. Modules 7.31 to 7.40

14.4.1. 7.31 – Gleying a Pond [ANMTN]

14.4.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Leaky ponds that are cut back to having sides with ratios of three or four (units of length) to one (unit of height) can be sealed with gley, a naturally fermented sealant, or bentonite clay. Apply six to ten centimeters of gley over the inside of the pond, or use bentonite, twenty kilos per square meter, spread over the surface. Then, in either case, they should be covered with twenty centimeters of soil with a decent clay content that is tamped down. Finally, the pond should be gently filled up to full height, sealing up any leaky spots.

14.4.2. 7.32 – Water Tanks [VIDEO]

14.4.2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Identify what water tanks can be made of and what their main purpose is - Describe how a water tank works, what to expect, and how to problem-shoot - Estimate the amount of water any given household will need to have stored in tanks BRIEF OVERVIEW Tanks can be constructed of concrete, zinc/allum, or plastic. They are the preferred method for storing drinking water because they are cleaner than either main water or groundwater. This is because we can control our tank’s water. A general rule of the thumb is that, if you can breathe the air, you can drink the water from it. Roofs made of concrete, tile, and metal are generally safe for harvesting drinking water, while wood and thatch roofs tend to have too many tannins and tarmac roofs to many impurities. To help with insuring cleanliness, we can buy diverters that get rid of the first few liters of water before storing it. We can plan carefully to provide ourselves with water even when it isn’t raining. On average, each person uses 250 liters of water a day, with maximums reaching about 450 liters and minimums dropping to about 90. Knowing that one square meter of roof plus one millimeter of rain yields one liter of water, we can design to catch enough water to get us through our driest period. A typical tank set up begins with a gauze over the opening to prevent any large debris, insects, or animals from getting into the tank. Within the tank, a naturally occurring algae — the same found in clean mountain streams — removes any minor pollutants. After many years, it’s possible that the bottom of the tank will need to be cleaned of tiny soil deposits that collect there. In the case of regions with acid rain, which is problematic because a pH balance of 4.5 or less make heavy metals water soluble, it’s possible to alkaline the water by hanging a bag of limestone or marble chips in the tank. Catching our own water means much less burden on groundwater sources, much less energy spent having to transport it, and more air pollution regulation because cleaner air equates to clean drinking water. There are many benefits when we are responsible for our own water. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Tanks can be made of concrete, zinc/allum, or plastic. - They are the preferred choice for drinking water. - Catching our own water means it's cleaner because we are getting it from the air and have control of it. - The average person uses 250 L of water a day. - One square meter of roof and one millimeter of rain can supply one liter of water. - With the right information, we can store enough water to get us through the driest periods. - Gauze should be used at the entrance of a tank to prevent debris, insects, and small animals from entering. - Naturally occurring algae removes minor pollutants. - Acid rain can be neutralized by hanging a bag of limestone or marble chips in a tank.

14.4.3. 7.33 – Schematic Cost for Dams and Tanks [ANMTN]

14.4.3.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Comparing the cost of earth dams to storage tanks, tanks can cost 100 times that of dams for the same volume of water.

14.4.4. 7.34 – Swales [VIDEO]

14.4.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Define a swale and its main function - Explain how trees and swales interact - Recognize the positive effects of swales regardless of climate BRIEF OVERVIEW Swales are long, level excavations used to loosen soil and absorb water. They can be many forms and widths, including small ridges in the garden, rock piles on slopes, or hollows in flat lands. The main function is to interrupt the sheet flow of water, let it infiltrate into the soil, and ultimately recharge the groundwater. Swales are a tree growing system, and trees are vital to their success. Generally, trees are planted on the excavated mound on the lower side of the swale (or possibly inside the swale in deserts), and leguminous trees are planted on the back slope to help with shade and stability. Trees take the water collected in the swale and transpire some of it back into the atmosphere, helping the water cycle. The crowns of trees can meet over the swale, preventing salting and evaporation. Animals can then be fenced off and grazed inside the swales, feeding on the grass and overhanging tree branches. Their manure adds nutrients to the water that soaks in, and that feeds the trees. Swales can be used across climates, and within seven years they can fully rehydrate a landscape and begin recharging groundwater. Water sits passively within a swale until it soaks into the landscape, so whichever season the rain occurs will become less significant because the soil will be hydrated. The size of swales will vary according to conditions like slope and soil type, but eventually they will not only hydrate the landscape but also support trees, which will create hummus from leaf drop. All of this serves to create a very high quality system. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Swales are long, level excavations used to soak water into a landscape and grow trees. - Trees are an essential part of swales, and they are usually planted on swale mounds, with leguminous trees planted on the back slope. - Swales can be used across climates, work with different soil types, and are great for capturing hard surface runoff. - In seven years, swales can completely rehydrate a landscape and begin recharging the groundwater. - Swales help to make systems higher quality with the combination of leaf drop for the trees and water soakage from the swales.

14.4.5. 7.35 – Swales [ANMTN]

14.4.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Swales are sculpted ditches on contour with soft earth mounds on the downhill side of the trench. They don’t flow but, instead, stop and spread water for absorption into the landscape. They are a tree-growing system.

14.4.6. 7.36 – Chicken House over Swale [ANMTN]

14.4.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A chicken house over a swale permits direct deposits of manure and manured litter into the trench. Flooding rains will dilute this and spread it to trees and swale crops.

14.4.7. 7.37 – Regrading Swales to Remove Silt [ANMTN]

14.4.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Swales can be re-graded over time, removing the silt and putting it on the downside of tree lines. They can also be widened over time to become terraces with nitrogen-fixing crops.

14.4.8. 7.38 – Diversion Banks and Drains [VIDEO]

14.4.8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Differentiate between diversion banks, drains, and swales - Relate how flags, stops and a level sill spillway can move water passively - List ways the drains, swales, and dams can be put to good use BRIEF OVERVIEW Diversion banks and drains are gently sloping ditches that lead water away from valleys and streams into storages. Unlike swales, they are built to make water flow, and they are often used to connect dams in a key line system. Their slope can be as little 1:6000, and they will still create water flow. With the use of a flag or stops and a level sill spillway, diversion ditches can be utilized to water large sections of landscape. The flag and spillway will take the energy out of the water, so the ditches overflow will not be destructive. The spillway can be constructed of concrete, and it can be undisturbed soil with vegetation. With same technique, water can be moved passively from one contour line to another. Through diversion drains, swales, and dams, we can put surplus water to good use. We flush salts off the landscape. We spread water so that it absorbs more evenly. We can put our wildfires, and we can modestly irrigate. This is all without constant reliance on energy and municipal water sources. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Diversion drains and banks are gently sloping ditches. - They are used to move water away from valleys and streams and into storages. - With flags or stops and level sill spillways, diversion ditches can also be used to water large pieces of land or move water from one contour line to another. - With diversions drains, swales, and dams, we are putting surplus water to good use without constant energy inputs.

14.4.9. 7.39 – Diversion Drains [ANMTN]

14.4.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Diversion drains run downhill, slightly below grade at a one to 300-500 slope. They can collect water from streams or overland flow and direct it to storages. They are a standard piece of rainwater harvesting systems.

14.4.10. 7.40 – Flag [ANMTN]

14.4.10.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A flag held by a pole long enough to reach both sides of an irrigation canal and canvas wide enough to reach its inner edges can be anchored down on the opposite end with heavy chain and pegs to force water over the edges of the channel and flood irrigate downslope.

14.5. Modules 7.41 to 7.51

14.5.1. 7.41 – Spreader Banks [ANMTN]

14.5.1.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW The level sill spillway pacifies water from a dam or swale. The longer its length, the greater the amount of water that can be pacified.

14.5.2. 7.42 – Schematic of Irrigation Bays [ANMTN]

14.5.2.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Irrigations bays work very well but must be constructed very well. Water enters through a water trench called a head race, moving slightly slope towards the irrigation bays. The bays slowly and very marginally fall down away from the head race, and any water that reaches the bottom of them is picked up by an outlet trench called the tail race. Swivel pipes direct the water to enter the bays. Bays are usually no more than 100 meters long to avoid evaporation, with cross buns and swivel pipes to control which bays are flooded. Or, irrigation bays can cross slopes in long, thin wet terraces, falling in sequence with swivel pipe spillways leading to the next one downhill.

14.5.3. 7.43 – Reduction of Water Use in Sewage Systems [VIDEO]

14.5.3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Discover the negative impact of flushing-toilets and centralized sewage systems - Express how dry composting toilets are a safe, viable option - Convert flushing toilets into less destructive and wasteful elements BRIEF OVERVIEW A lot of water — 30,000-40,000 liters per person per year — is used for flushing toilets, and often that is water good enough to drink. Even worse, this generally becomes a burden on a centralized system to process it back into something safe. But, we needn’t be so wasteful and destructive. By designing well, we can convert this seemingly problematic element and create useful things. Dry composting toilets lock pathogens up with carbon material so that they don’t spread and are allowed to become fertilizer. Or, human waste could be directed to a methane bio-digester first, supplying energy for running an engine or stove, and then the result can be used to increase soil fertility. Other design options exist for flush toilets. Wash basins can be designed so that they drain into toilet tanks, allowing us to use that water for flushing. Septic systems are tanks with a baffle inside, stopping solid material and allowing liquids to pass through. The liquid is then filtered through a reed bed, ultimately being released into a leach field, where it could be put to productive use. KEY TAKEAWAYS - 30,000 to 40,000 liters of water per person per year is used to flush toilets, often with potable water. - There are many design methods to help lessen this destructive and wasteful practice. - Dry composting toilets use carbon to lock up pathogens and turn humanure into compost. - Bio-digesters use humanure to create methane gas to run engines or provide gas to cookers. - Wash basins can be drained into toilet tanks so that flushing can be a secondary use of greywater. - Septic tanks can be combine with reed beds and leach fields to become productive cropping systems.

14.5.4. 7.44 – The Purification of Polluted Waters [VIDEO]

14.5.4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Criticize our centralized water sources and recommend new alternatives - Name the many problems that we face when it comes to drinking water - Give example solutions to the problems of making safe drinking water - Recognize the power of natural systems to clean water more effectively than machinery BRIEF OVERVIEW Our water sources have become centralized, which has created problems. We should have laws requiring fully forested catchments and outlawing biocides and processing with heavy metals. Instead, centralized water sources are using 30-40, often unsafe, additives to combat the pollutants in the water. We shouldn’t be allowing any fecal matter or chemicals anywhere near any water we are going to consume. If we treat our catchments the right way, there will be no need to treat water. Water from air clean enough to breathe should be safe for us to use. But, there are many problems when it comes to drinking water. Turbidity (cloudiness), bacteria, metals, biocides, and fertilizers can all prevent us from having safe drinking water. Luckily, there are many systems to help us clean water. Aeration, filtration, skimming, sieving, and biological systems can all help us clean water naturally. We can also look to mechanized systems or products made for cleaning water. Animals like mussels and crawfish can help filter water and monitor acid and toxin levels. At the end of a cleaning system, there are always reed beds with floating plants, often some of the most hated weeds in the world. No machinery can do this as efficiently, and from the beds, the water can flow through to food forests and pastures. We know that we can use plants like this to take out pathogens and toxins, cleaning problematic water and creating productive systems. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Centralized water creates difficulties with pollution. - Dealing with water contaminants starts with protecting our catchments. - Air clean enough to breathe should provide water clean enough to drink. - Problems with drinking water can be turbidity, bacteria, metals, biocides, fertilizer, and acidity. - We can clean water naturally with aeration, filtration, skimming, sieving and biological systems. - Mussels and crawfish make a great water cleaning team, and they also help monitor toxin levels. - Water cleaning systems should always end with reed beds that have floating plants, the combination of which takes out pathogens and toxins.

14.5.5. 7.45 – Sand Filter [ANMTN]

14.5.5.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A basic sand filter cleans water of microbiological pollution, flowing from the bottom to the top. The bottom is coarse rocks, topped with gravel, coarse sand, and fine sand. The clean water then flows out of the top. The surface sand can be roasted or washed for cleaning, roughly once a year.

14.5.6. 7.46 – Schematic of Sewage Ponds to Crop [ANMTN]

14.5.6.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW Manures and shredded organic waste can be used to create biogas in a digester. Some of the biogas can be used to run a machine that will pump biogas back into the bottom of the digester to increase overall production. All of the surplus gas can be used as a fuel, but new inputs must be added every day to maintain gas production. At the same time, an equal volume of sludge—a safe, organic fertilizer—exits the system.

14.5.7. 7.47 – Sewage Treatment [ANMTN]

14.5.7.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A settlement’s sewage system can produce biogas, algae, fish, wildlife habitat, and clean water for irrigation. Sewage should go through coarse gravel filtration, then a biogas digester, with solar hot water heater to increase efficiency. The biogas created from this can run an engine to compress the rest of the gas, which can then be used to further agitate the digester, which will produce extra gas. This moves into algae-producing canals with stirrer paddles run by the same biogas engine, after which the water moves through an algae processing plant and into aerobic ponds with an input at one end and an exit at the other, leading to a reed bed canal. The digestion is five to ten days, the algae four to six days, the aerobic ponds ten to twenty days, and the reed bed filtration ten days. Then, the water is clean and ready for irrigation.

14.5.8. 7.48 – Biological Treatment of Polluted Water [ANMTN]

14.5.8.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW To biologically clean pond water, one should start with a sand filter into a gravel reed bed into a holding tank with lime (to neutralize acidity). Then, it can go into the house for washing, cleaning and flushing toilets. The waste water can go into a digester or a septic tank before draining into a small pond with floating water plants that can be fed to the digester or used for mulch or compost. From there, it goes into underground irrigation canals. Ideally, a windmill would be positioned to pump excess water back up into the pond to complete the cycle.

14.5.9. 7.49 – Schematic of Sewage Ponds to Crop II [ANMTN]

14.5.9.1. BRIEF OVERVIEW A biogas digester can be the central component for receiving sewage, manures, and waste products, like from alcohol distillation. Biogas can be used to run a small motor to process forest waste, used for feeding the biogas digester. All waste water can go to a reed bed filtration system with the final product going to crop irrigation.

14.5.10. 7.50 – Natural Swimming Pools [VIDEO]

14.5.10.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this video you should be able to: - Explain the basic inner-workings of a natural swimming pool BRIEF OVERVIEW In a natural swimming pool, the water is cleaned by living elements. The bottom of the pool is covered in gravel, and the pool can be constructed of concrete, wood, plastic, stone, or even fiberglass. Water is pumped from the bottom of the pool and dropped into an aquatic plant system to clean. This could also include some fish or crayfish. The water then cascades back into the pool, aerating. This can all be run on solar energy. In reality, there isn’t much difference between the construction of these pools and chemical pools. Here, though, abundant life equates to clean water. Key Takeaways - Natural swimming pools are cleaned by living elements. - Water is pumped from the bottom of the pool into aquatic gardens. - The water then cascades (aerating it) back into the pool. - The pump can be run on solar energy. - The construction isn’t very different from chemical pools. - In natural pools, abundant life signifies clean water